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FIRST  MANUAL  OF  COMPOSITION 


DESIGNED    FOR   USE   IN 


THE  HIGHEST  GRAMMAR  GRADE  AND  THE 
LOWER   HIGH   SCHOOL   GRADES 


BY 


EDWIN   HERBERT   LEWIS,  Ph.D. 

Professor  in  the  Lewis  Institute,  Chicago  ;  Author  of 

"An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Literature" 


lo/d8 


Wcto  Hork 
THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 
1899 

All  rights  reserved 


COPTRIGHT,    1899, 

By  the  macmillan  company. 


NortooDti  ^Srfsa 

J.  S.  Cushinj;  .t  Co.  -  licrwii'k  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  II. S  A. 


4  7  7  3 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

-?£ 
PREFACE 

Two  years  ago  the  writer  published  a  small 
volume  called  "  A  First  Book  in  Writing  Eng- 
lish." He  did  so  on  the  hypothesis  that  all 
the  rhetorical  theory  necessary  for  college  en- 
trance may  best  be  given  in  simple  form  to 
students  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  high 
school,  in  order  that  it  may  later  be  assimilated 
by  practice.  After  watching  the  book  in  use 
by  pupils  of  very  different  ages,  he  believes  the 
hypothesis  to  be  essentially  correct.  The  chief 
principles  of  rhetoric  can  be  grasped  very  early, 
but  only  long  practice  can  transform  them  into 
a  workman's  instincts. 

He  has  now  attempted  to  apply  the  principle 
a  little  lower  down  ;  to  connect  grammatical 
with  rhetorical  study  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
grades  ;  to  present  sentence-analysis  as  a  means 
of  naming  and  revising  what  the  pupil  himself 
has  instinctively  written  ;  and  to  arouse  a  desire 
of  reasoning  soundly  about  matters  interesting 
to  the  reasoner.     Leavinsf   the   "•  First   Book" 


VI  PREFACE 

unchanged,  in  the  liope  that  it  may  sometimes 
be  found  available  where  a  single  volume  must 
serve  throughout  the  high  school  course,  he 
has  prepared  a  "  First  Manual  "  and  a  "•  Second 
Manual,"  the  two  designed  to  suggest  a  system 
of  rhetorical  theory  and  practice  for  the  entire 
secondary  period.  The  "  First  Manual,"  in- 
tended for  students  of  thirteen,  fourteen,  and 
fifteen,  contains  170  short  exercises.  It  may 
be  used  daily  for  one  year,  or  less  often  for 
two  years.  If  studied  daily  for  one  year,  it 
should  be  employed  as  a  handbook  throughout 
at  least  another  year,  during  which  the  exercises 
may  be  referred  to,  by  number,  in  the  margin 
of  themes. 

One  thought  has  dictated  much  in  the  plan 
of  the  book ;  namely,  that  the  student  con- 
cerned is  neither  wholly  child  nor  wholly  ado- 
lescent. He  is  a  human  being  in  the  most 
significant  of  mental  moments,  that  in  which 
the  transition  begins  from  the  irresponsible,  sen- 
sory child  to  the  responsible,  rational  adult. 
He  needs  to  write  freely,  fluently,  even  imagi- 
natively ;  and  yet  he  must  be  taught  that  the 
person  who  expresses  himself  too  freely  and 
inexactly  will  unintentionally  bear  false  wit- 
ness and  make  trouble   for  his  fellows.      His 


P  EFFACE  Vll 

logical  powers  are  developing,  and  he  is  not 
without  desire  of  learning  how  to  think  ;  but 
he  is  unable  to  follow  bitterly  long  and  close 
chains  of  reasoning.  He  needs  to  know  new 
words  and  how  to  spell  them,  but  not  a  book- 
ful  unavailable  for  his  compositions.  He  must 
gain  the  power  of  constructing  decent  sen- 
tences, but  he  cannot  gain  it  in  a  week.  In 
view  of  these  needs,  the  aims  and  devices  of 
the  present  manual  are  roughly  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Interest.  —  Most  of  the  material  used  for 
illustrative  purposes  has  been  chosen  with  re- 
gard to  intrinsic  interest  and  value,  and  has 
been  winnowed  by  being  submitted  to  pupils 
themselves. 

2.  iSjjontaneit)/.  —  (1)  Almost  every  written 
task  is  preceded  ])y  one  or  two  oral  tasks 
on  the  same  subject.  (2)  Almost  every  writ- 
ten task  is  short.  (3)  Certain  exercises  call 
for  play  of  the  imagination.  (4)  Simple  prin- 
ciples of  invention  are  offered  as  helps  in  com- 
posing. (5)  Every  theme  is  to  be  composed 
with  an  eye  to  invention  only ;  it  is  to  be 
revised  when  first  finished,  or  later.  (6)  Some 
part  of  a  suggestive  vocabulary  studied  the  day 
before  is  required  in  many  themes.  If  spon- 
taneity means  mere  haste  to  shed  innocent  ink, 


Vlll  PREFACE 

this  device  will  but  hinder  ;  not  so  if  spon- 
taneity means  invention  and  eagerness  to  ex- 
press it.  With  some  classes  it  may  be  wise 
to  suspend  the  set  tasks  occasionally,  and  en- 
courage mere  garrulity.  But,  in  spite  of  daily 
exercise  of  their  imaginations  through  reading 
news  and  fiction  by  highly  "  extensive  "  methods, 
most  boys  have  little  to  say,  and  hate  to  spin  it 
out. 

3.  Drill  in  ^-easoniyifj.  —  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  simplify  the  subject  of  para- 
graph structure  l)y  approaching  it  from  the 
point  of  view  of  a  chain  of  tliought.  The 
logical  paragraph  is  regarded  as  a  chain  of 
reasoning  from  a  topic  to  a  conclusion  about 
that  topic.  Practice  is  afforded  in  thinking 
to  a  conclusion  before  writing  the  paragraph. 
The  imposing  word  "  logical "  is  given  and 
explained,  because  it  is  easily  understood  by 
young  students,  and  is  of  immense  value  to 
them  —  just  as  ''x"  is  valuable  to  them  in 
mathematics.  Drill  is  also  given  in  the  logi- 
cal use  of  conjunctions,  the  logical  arrangement 
of  words,  and  the  reduction  of  unimportant 
paratactic  sentences  to  their  proper  hypotactic 
rank.  All  this  may  sound  too  hard  for  the 
age  under  discussion,  but  it  has  seemed  other- 


PREFACE  IX 

wise  in  the  experiments  on  which  the  exercises 
rest. 

4.  SpelUng  and  vocahulary.  —  A  dozen  rnles 
for  spelling  the  more  diflicult  common  words 
are  inserted  at  intervals.  The  exercises  insure 
oral  and  written  use  of  vocabularies  valuable 
to  students  of  this  age,  but  hard  to  spell. 
There  is  also  a  cliapter  on  the  correct  use  of 
common  expressions. 

5.  Senteyice-structure  and  punctuation.  —  The 
method  of  treating  sentence-structure  and  punc- 
tuation in  a  chapter  or  two  by  themselves  has 
been  abandoned.  Every  week  or  so  one  principle 
touching  these  matters  is  to  be  reached  induc- 
tively, and  then  is  to  be  used  as  a  guide  in 
revising  past  themes,  as  far  as  time  will  allow. 
The  student  takes  his  pack  of  papers  and  exam- 
ines it  with  reference  to  the  detail  of  theory 
which  he  has  acquired  that  week.  Thus  his  atten- 
tion is  fastened  part  of  the  week  on  invention, 
part  on  revision.  The  teaclier  can  easily  go 
about  the  room  while  the  revision  is  in  prog- 
ress, and  satisfy  himself  that  each  pupil  has 
detected  at  least  some  instances  of  observance 
or  violation  of  the  principle.  Of  course  there 
is  a  certain  tedium  for  the  student  in  so  much 
revision  ;  it  is  folly  to  think  that  any  writer, 


X  PREFACE 

old  or  young,  can  much  enjoy  the  drudgery  of 
correction.  But  the  youth's  sense  of  owner- 
ship can  be  appealed  to.  It  is  his  body  of  work 
that  he  is  slowly  trying  to  perfect,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  year  the  product  shall  be  his  to  keep. 
It  is  a  pity  if  the  boy  who  treasures  what  Pro- 
fessor William  James  calls  a  "  noisome  collec- 
tion of  postage  stamps  "  cannot  be  brought  to 
a  keen  pride  in  a  collection  of  his  own  literary 
inventions.  At  all  events,  lecturing  and  ex- 
hortation will  never  do  for  him  what  his  own 
progressive  revision  will.  Practice  should  fol- 
low close  upon  the  principle  ;  there  should  be 
"no  perception  without  a  reaction." 

A  word  as  to  the  distribution  of  sentence- 
exercises  may  here  ])e  in  place.  Narration  is 
the  primary  type  of  com[)osition,  and  parataxis, 
with  its  incessant  awcfs  and  bufs,  is  the  primary 
type  of  structure.  Therefore  the  simple  and 
the  compound  sentence  are  approached  under 
the  head  of  narrative.  The  complex  sentence 
is  a  late  development,  alike  in  tlie  race  and  the 
child ;  for,  after  all,  to  know  which  of  one's 
thoughts  are  principal  and  wliich  subordinate, 
which  important  and  which  unimportant,  is 
about  the  most  dillicult  of  human  tasks.  Drill 
in  hypotaxis  is  accordingly  deferred  until  near 


PREFACE  ■  XI 

the  end  of  tlie  book,  where  it  weaves  in  with  the 
general  discussion  of  logical  relations.  As  for 
punctuation,  the  chief  essentials  are  treated  in 
connection  with  the  exercises  in  sentence-struc- 
ture, and  the  minor  principles  are  assigned,  arbi- 
trarily, or  in  consideration  of  minor  advantages, 
to  the  chapters  on  description  and  letter-writing. 

The  exercises  are  classified  as  oral  and  writ- 
ten, and  in  general  the  two  kinds  alternate. 
The  oral  should  be  read  aloud  by  students,  and 
afterward  repeated  in  substance  by  the  readers 
or  the  hearers.  It  is  an  advantage  to  all  for 
the  pupil  who  has  the  floor  to  come  forward, 
face  the  class,  and  speak  for  two  or  three  min- 
utes without  other  assistance  than  courteous 
attention  from  every  person  in  the  room. 

It  has  already  been  urged  that  the  student 
should  be  trained  to  find  his  own  mistakes. 
The  English  teacher  often  inflicts  on  himself 
years  of  confinement  at  hard  labor  without  ade- 
quate result.  He  puts  out  his  eyes  and  cramps 
his  hand  in  "jotting  down"  a  hundred  times 
the  same  correction  for  the  same  student.  The 
thirty  exercises  in  revision  should  be  supple- 
mented by  revision  of  first  drafts  before  they 
are  handed  in.  If  any  exercise  proves  too 
long  to  permit  revision  in  class,  this  work  may 


Xll  PREFACE 

be  done  in  the  study  period,  —  or  the  exercise 
may  ruthlessly  be  shortened.  .No  text-book 
must  be  allowed  to  get  in  a  teacher's  way. 
Of  course,  the  teacher  cannot  escape  theme- 
reading,  and  he  cannot  wholly  escape  the  cor- 
recting. But  marginal  hints  should  be  limited 
to  principles  given  before  the  date  of  correction. 
Scores  of  the  most  elementary  errors  should  be 
left  untouched  for  the  student  to  discover  in 
the  coming  weeks.  Much  of  the  marginal  cor- 
rection may  be   done  by  rubber  stamps ;   e.g. 

EXAMINE     THOUGHT;      EXAMINE     STllUCTURE : 

EXAMINE  DETAILS  ;  LOOK  AGAIN.  Any  Sta- 
tioner can  furnish  these  four  stamps  at  trifling 
cost. 

The  author  acknowledges  gratefully  the  criti- 
cisms he  has  sought  and  received  from  his  col- 
leagues, —  Director  George  N.  Carman,  Miss 
Jane  F.  Noble,  Miss  Charlotte  W.  Underwood, 
Mr.  Plulemon  B.  Kohlsaat,  and  Mr.  Lewis  Gus- 
tafson  ;  also  from  Miss  Lillian  AL  Ramsdell  of 
Winona,  Minnesota,  and  Mr.  Leroy  T.  Weeks 
of  Winfield,  Kansas. 


E  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


EXERCISE  PAGE 

1.    (Oral. )     The  value  of  composition         ...         1 


CHAPTER   I 

THE    HISTORICAL    PARAGRAPH,    A    CHAIN    OF    ACTUAL 
EVKNTS 

C  Topic  :  How  to  give  value  to  a  histori- 

2     rOral  '^  '^^^  paragraph 7 

'    ^     '  ■  -'      I  Conclusion  :  Tell  the  exact  truth  con- 

i        cerning  events  as  they  seemed  to  you       10 

3.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  historical  narrative   .       10 

4.  (Oral.)     To   tell   an   incident   out   of    your  own 

experience       .....       12 

5.  (Written.)     To  write   a  trustworthy  account   of 

the  same  Incident   ....       12 
(  Topic  :  Wliat  order  to  follow  in  liistori- 

c     ,^    ,  .  cal  narrative 12 

6.  (Oral.)      i  r,       ^     ■  T.  11         .1  ^   ^• 

^  C(-inclusion  :    ioliow   tlie   exact   tnne- 

l        order  in  so  far  as  possible        .         .       13 

7.  (Written.)     To  revise  past  themes  witli  reference 

to  spelling,  handwriting,  and  time- 
order       ......       14 

8.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  historical  paragraph  .       14 

9.  (Oral.)     To   tell   an   incident   out   of   your   own 

experience       .....       15 
10.    (Written.)     To  write  a  trustworthy,  orderly  ac- 
count of  the  same  incident      .         .        15 


XIV 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


EXERCISE 


11.    (Oral. 


12.    (Oral.)      I 


13.  (Written 

14.  (Written 


15.    (Written.) 


10.    (Oral.) 

17.  (Written 

18.  (Oral.) 


19.  (Oral 

20.  (Written. 

21.  (Oral.) 

22.  (Written.) 


r  Topic :    How    long    should    our    sen- 

I        tences  be  ? 15 

Conclusion  :  Seldom  place  periods  thirty 

words  apart     .....       18 
(  Topic :     How    many    sentences    may 

ordinarily  be  compounded  in  one  ?       18 
Conclusion  :    Rarely   compound    more 

than  two  sentences  in  one  .  .  20 
To  reproduce  a  historical  paragraph  .  21 
To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of 

n  and  12 22 

To  write  a  trustworthy,  orderly  ac- 
count of  an   incident  out  of   your 
own  exi^erience       ....       22 
[-  Topic  :  How  to  avoid  the  Child's  Error 
I         in  punctuati(in         .         .         .         .23 
I  C(.>nclusion :    Never   try   to   make  the 
I        comma  do  the  work  of  the  period  .       25 
.)     To  reproduce  a  historical  narrative    .       25 
To  read  a  theme  aloud  and  receive  criti- 
cisms from  the  class        ...       26 
'  Topic  :  How  to  punctuate  a  complete 

statement  beginning  with  so    .         .       26 
Conclusion  :    Place  a  semicolon   or  a 
period   before   the  conjunction  so 
when  and  does  not  precede  it       .       27 
)     To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of 

16  and  19 27 

(  Topic  :  How  to  avoid  the  monotonous 

use  of  and  or  atid  so        .        .        .27 
Conclusion  :  Often  place  a  period  or  a 
semicolon,  and  begin  a  new  state- 
ment with  a  synonym  for  and  or 

and  so 30 

To   revise   past  themes  in   the   light 
of  21 30 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


XV 


26.    (Oral.) 


27.  (Written. 

28.  (Written, 

29.  (Oral.) 


EXERCISE 

23.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  historical  paragraph  . 

24.  (Oral.)     To   tell   an   incident   out    of   a   friend's 

experience       ..... 

25.  (Written.)     To  write  a  trustworthy,  orderly  ac- 

count of  the  same  incident 
Topic  :  How  to  avoid  the  monotonous 

use  of  but 
Conclusion :    Instead    of    the    comma 
before  but,  sometimes  place  a  period 
or  a  semicolon,  and   begin  a  new 
statement  witli  a  synonym  for  but  . 
)     To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of  26 
,)     To  reproduce  a  historical  paragraph  . 
To  tell  a  dream  out  of  your  own  expe- 
rience     ...... 

30.    (Written.)     To  write  a  trustworthy,  orderly  ac- 
count of  the  same  dream 


PAfiE 

30 
31 
31 
31 


33 
33 


34 


36 


CHAPTER   II 

THE    FICTITIOUS    PARAGRAIMI,    A    CHAIN    OF    IMAGINED 

EVENTS 

31.  (Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words      37 

32.  (Written.)     To  use  these  words  in  writing  of  a 

fanciful  adventure  .         .         .         .37 

33.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  an  account  of  an  acci- 

dent         37 

f  Topic  :  How  to  punctuate  two  .sentences 
or  two  predicates  compounded  by 
a)ul  ......       38 

34.  (Oral.)  \  Conclusion  :  Dace  a  comma  between 
compounding  sentences  joined  in 
one  by  a)i(l,  and  sometimes  between 
predicates  so  joined         ...       44 


39.    (Oral.)     \ 


Xvi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

KXERl'ISE  PAGE 

35.  (Written.)     To  revise  past  themes  in  the   light 

of  34 44 

36.  (Oral.)     To  spell  and  define  a  group  of  new  words      44 

37.  (Written.)     To  use  these  words  in  writing  of  an 

imaginary  conspiracy      ...       45 

38.  (Oral.)     To  read  a  theme  aloud  and  receive  criti- 

cisms from  the  class        ...       45 
■  Topic:  How  to  punctuate  two  sentences 
or  two  predicates  compounded  by 

but 45 

Conclusion  :  riace  a  comma  or  a  semi- 
colon between  compounding  sen- 
tences joined  in  one  by  Init,  and 
often  a  comma  between  predicates 
so  joined  ......       48 

40.  (Written.)     To   revise  past   themes  in   the   light 

of  31) 48 

41.  (Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words      48 

42.  (Written.)     To  use  most  of  these  words  in  writing 

a  probable  account  of  an  accident      49 
(  Topic  :  How  to  use  and  reasonably      .       49 

43.  (Oral.)      ]  Conclusion:    Let  (ind  introduce    only 

[        that  which  should  be  added  closely       50 

44.  (Written.)     To   revise   past   themes  in  the  light 

of  43        ......       50 

45.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  paragraph  on  camp 

life 50 

40.    (Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words       51 

47.  (Written.)     To  use  most  of  these  words  in  writing 

a  probable  account  of  a  camping 

trip 51 

r  Topic  :  How  to  use  hnt  reasonably       .       52 

48.  (Oral.)      \  Conclusion:    Let  but,  introduce  a  real 

[        and  immediate  contrast  .         .         .53 

49.  (Written.)     To  revise  past  tliemes  in  the  light 

of48       .        .        .        .        .        .53 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


XVll 


54. 

55. 

56. 
57. 


I 
(Written.) 

(Written.) 


EXEKCISE  PAGE 

50.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  paragraph  on  walking      54 

51.  (Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words       55 

52.  (Written.)     To  use  most  of  these  words  in  writing 

a  probable  account  of  a  walking  tour  55 
Topic:   How  to  vary  the  monotonous 

use  of  the  causal  conjunction  as  .  55 
Conclusion :    Instead  of  as  sometimes 

53.  (Oral. )  i  use  for,  because,  since,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that,  for  the  reason  that;  and 
when  the  causal  relation  is  obvious, 
omit  the  conjunction        ...       58 

To  revise   past   themes  in  the  light 

of  58 58 

To  reproduce  a  paragraph  on  railway 
travel      ......       58 

(Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words      59 
(Written.)     To  use  most  of  these  words  in  writing 
a   probable   account  of   a   railway 
journey  ......       59 

58.  (Oral.)     To  read  a  theme  aloud  and  receive  criti- 

cisms from  the  class        .         .         .59 
Topic  :  To  reach  a  definition  of  "  com- 
plex sentence "        .         .         .         .59 
Conclusion :    A   complex   sentence   is 

59.  (Oral.)  \  one  in  which  statements  are  used 
to  modify  the  subject  or  the  predi- 
cate, and  so  become  dependent 
statements       .....       66 

60.  (Written.)     To  classify  conjunctions  which  intro- 

duce dependent  statements    .         .      06 


63.    (Oral.) 


xvm  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    DESCRIPTIVE    PARAGRAPH,    A    SERIES    OF    IMAGES 
EXERf'ISE  PAGE 

Gl.    (Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words      67 
62.    (Written.)     To  use  a  part  of  these  words  in  de- 
scribing faithfully  an  actual  person      68 
C  Topic  :  How  not  to  punctuate  a  modi- 
fying clause 68 

Conclusion :  Beware  of  punctuating  a 
I        modifying  clause  as  a  sentence        .       71 

64.  (Written.)     To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of  6.3      71 

65.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  character  sketch  of  a 

person 71 

66.  (Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words      72 

67.  (Written.)     To  use  a  part  of  these  words  in  de- 

scribing faithfully  an  actual  person       73 
Topic  :  How  to  avoid  interrupting  the 

stream  of  thought  ....       73 

68.  (Oral.)  •{  Conclusion  :  Karely  insert  a  comma 
■save  as  a  warning  to  prevent  confu- 
sion or  misunderstanding        .         .       76 

69.  (Written.)     To  revise   past   themes  in  the  light 

of  68 76 

70.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  character  sketch  of  a 

person 76 

71.  (Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words      77 

72.  (Written.)     To  use  a  part  of  these  words  in  de- 

scribing an  ideal  boy  or  girl    .         .       78 
f  Topic:  How  to  punctuate  appositive  and 

slightly  parenthetical  expressions    .       79 

73.  (Oral.)  \  Conclusion  :  Set  off  appositive  and 
slightly  parenthetical  expressions 
by  the  comma  before  and  after       .       82 

74.  (Written.)     To  revise   past   themes   in  the   light 

of  73 82 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


75. 

70. 

77. 


79. 
80. 
81. 


84. 


80. 

87. 


(Written.)  To  reproduce  a  description  of  a  pic- 
turesque land.scape 

(Oral.)  To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new 
words     ...... 

(Written.)     To  use  a  part  of  these  words  in  de- 
scribing a  real  or  imagined  land- 
scape      ...... 

f  Topic  :  How  to  punctuate  words  in  a 
series       ...... 

(Oral.)      \  Conclusion:  Separate  words  in  a  series 

by  the  comma,  even  when  and  con- 

[        nects  the  last  two    .... 

(Written.)  To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 
of  78 

(Written.)  To  reproduce  a  description  of  a  grace- 
ful landscape  .... 

(Oral. )     To  define  and  .spell  a  group  of  new  words 

(Written.)  To  use  a  part  of  these  words  in  de- 
scribing faithfully  an  actual  land- 
scape        

'  Topic :     How    to    punctuate    relative 
clauses     ...... 

(Oral  )  i  ^'''^'^■^"•^ion  :  Place  a  comma  before  a 
relative  clause  if  the  clause  is  not 
needed  to  identify  the  person  or 
thiug  to  which  it  relates  . 

(Written.)  To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 
of  83 

(Written.)  To  reproduce  a  description  of  a 
building 

(Oral.)     To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  new  words 

(Written.)  To  use  a  part  of  these  words  in 
describing  faithfully  an  actual 
building  ...... 

(Oral.)  To  read  aloud  a  theme  and  receive  criti- 
cisms from  the  class 


8li 
83 

83 

83 

85 

85 

85 
80 

80 
87 

89 

89 

89 
90 

91 
91 


XX 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


EXERCISB 


9.    (Oral 

and 
Written.  ] 


90 


(Oral 
and 

Written.) 


'  Topic  :   How  to  punctuate  the  begin- 
ning of  a  quotation  ...       91 
•   Conclusion  :  Before  an  informal  quota- 
j        tion  place  a  comma  ;  before  a  formal 
(^        quotation  a  colon    ....       93 
f  Topic:    How  to  punctuate  the  begin- 
ning of  an  enumeration  that  ex- 
plains a  preceding  summary   .         .       94 
\  Conclusion  :  Before  an  informal  enum- 
eration  that  explains  a  preceding 
summary  place  a  comma  and  a  dash  ; 
before  a  formal  enumeration  a  colon      95 


CHAPTER   IV 


THE    LOGICAL    PARAGRAPH,    A    CHAIN    OF    REASONING 


91.    (Oral.) 


92. 


93. 


94. 


(Oral.) 
(Oral.) 
(Oral.) 


To  understand  what  is  meant  by  a  chain 
of  reasoning  from  a  topic  to  a  con- 
clusion   ......       96 

To  express  every  thought  which  helps  in 

following  the  chain  to  the  end         .     100 
To  reject  every  thought  not  needed  for 

reaching  the  conclusion  .         .         .     105 
To  understand  what   is   meant  by  reas- 
oning from  general  to  particular  .     109 
(Oral.)     To     understand     what     is     meant     by 
reasoning  from  particular  to  gen- 
eral         110 

Topic:  The  first  caution  to  observe 
in  reasoning  to  a  general  conclu- 
sion   115 

Conclusion :  Make  your  observations 
as  many  as  possible  before  draw- 
ing a  conclusion      .         .         .         .118 


96.    (Oral.)      1, 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


XXI 


97.    (Oral.) 


98.    (Oral.) 


99.    (Oral.) 


100.    (Oral.) 


101.  (Oral.) 

102.  (Oral.) 

103.  (Written 

104.  (Oral.) 

105.  (Written 


106.  (Oral.) 

107.  (Written 


108.  (Written 

109.  (Oral.) 


To  practise   reasoning  from    observed 

data 118 

Topic  :  The  second  caution  to  observe 

in  reasoning  to  a  general  conclusion     119 
Conclusion  :  Make  guesses  freely  from 
resemblances  and  differences,  but 
come  to  no  conclusion  before  test- 
ing them  by  experiment        .         .     122 
r  Topic :  The  third  caution  to  observe 
I        in  reasoning  to  a  general  conclusion     1 23 
I  Conclusion  :    Do   not    mistake    irJiat 
I        happens  to  follow  for  what  results     125 
f  Topic  :  The  fourth  caution  to  observe 
I        in  reasoning  to  a  general  conclusion     125 
Conclusion  :  Do  not  use  vi^ords  with- 
out a  clear  sense  of  their  meaning     126 
C  Topic  :    How  to  frame  a  title  for  a 
I        paragraph  of  reasoning  .         .     126 

I  Conclusion  :   Let  the  title  give  some 
I        hint  of  the  conclusion    .         .         .130 
To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  words     .     130 
. )     To  write  a  logical  paragraph  on  "  '  A 

Cold  '  Described  and  Defined  "     .     130 
To  define  and  spell  a  group  of  words     .     130 
.)     To  write  a   logical    paragraph    on 
"  The   Characteristics  of  a  Good 

Cook" 131 

To  spell  and  define  a  group  of  words     .     131 
,)     To  write   a    logical    paragraph    on 
"What  I  understand  by  Success 
in  Manual  Exercises  "  .         .         .     1.32 
.)  To  reproduce  a  logical  paragraph       .     132 
r  Topic :    How  to  place  modifiers  logi- 
cally       133 

]  Conclusion  :  Place  every  modifier  near 

I        the  word  to  which  it  belongs         .     135 


XXll 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 


EXERCISE 

110.  (Written. 

111.  (Written, 

112.  (Oral.) 

113.  (Written. 

114.  (Written. 

115.  (Onal.) 

110.    (Written. 

117.  (Written. 

118.  (Oral.) 

110.    (Written. 

120.  (Written. 

121.  (Oral 
and 

Written.) 

122.  (Written.) 


To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 

of  109 135 

To  reproduce  a  logical  paragraph      .     135 
Topic  :    How  to  avoid  incorrect  refer- 
ence of  personal  pronouns     .         .     136 
Conclusion  :  Place  every  pronoun  near 
its  noun,  or,  if  necessary,  repeat 

the  noun 137 

To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 

of  112 "    .     137 

To  reproduce  a  logical  paragraph     .     137 
Topic :  How  to  avoid  illogical  refer- 
ence of  a  participle        .         .        .     138 
Conclusion :    Give  every  participle  a 
neighboring  noun  or  pronoun  with 
which  to  agree       ....     139 
To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 

of  115 139 

To  reproduce  a  logical  paragraph     .     139 
Topic  :  How  to  avoid  the  illogical  con- 
fusion   of    participle    and    verbal" 
noun      ......     1-40 

Conclusion  :   When  using  a  word  in 
ing,  precede  it  by  the  possessive  if 
you  mean  the  action  itself     .         .     141 
To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 

of  118 141 

To  reproduce  a  logical  paragraph     .     142 
Topic :  How  to  avoid  making  ichirh 

refer  to  a  verb        .         .        .         .142 
Conclusion:    Instead  of  v:Jiirh  refer- 
ring to  a  clause,  use  which  pre- 
ceded  by   an   appositive   for   the 

clause 143 

To  reproduce  a  logical  paragraph     .     144 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 


XXlll 


123.  (Oral 
and 

Written.)      I 

I 

124.  (Written.) 


125.  (Written. 

126.  (Oral.) 


127.  (Written, 

128.  (Written. 

129.  (Oral.) 

130.  (Written.) 

131.  (Oral.) 


132.  (Written, 

1.33.  (Written 

1.34.  (Written 
135.  (Oral.) 


Topic  :  How  to  avoid  the  illogical  use 
of  (md  which  ....     144 

.1  Conclusion :  Do  not  write  and  which 
unless  you  have  begun  the  preced- 
ing  clause  with  wliich    .         .         .     145 
To  revise  past  themes  with  reference 
to  concord  of  pronoun  and  ante- 
cedent ......     145 

To  reproduce  a  logical  paragi'aph     .     147 
To  review  certain  principles  of  govern- 
ment and  of  concord  between  sub- 
ject and  predicate  .         .         .     147 
To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 

of  126 150 

To  reproduce  a  logical  paragraph      .     150 
Topic :    How   to   avoid   an   awkward 

change  of  structure  in  the  senteiice     151 
Conclusion :   Often   compel  a   simple 
sentence  to  do  the  work  of  a  com- 
pound   .         .         .         .         .         .153 

To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light 

of  129 153 

Topic  :   How  to  dispose  of  modifiers 

masking  as  sentences     .         .         .153 
Conclusion  :    Reduce    to    clauses   or 
phrases    any   sentences   that   can 
easily  be  reduced  ....     157 
)     To  begin  revision  of  past  themes  in 

the  light  of  131      .         .         .         .     157 
)     To  continue  revision  of  themes  in 

the  light  of  131      ....     157 
)     To  conclude  revision  of  themes  in 

the  light  of  131      .         .         .         .157 
To   read   a   theme   aloud    and    receive 

criticisms  from  the  classj       ,        ,    157 


XXIV  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  V 

CORRECTNESS    IN    THE    USE    OF   WORDS 
EXEROISE  PAGE 

136.  (Oral.)     To  use   certain    nouns    and    pronouns 

correctly 158 

lo7.  (Oral.)     The  same  subject  continued  .        .         .  161 

138.  (Oral.)     To  use  certain  verbs  correctly         .         .164 

lo'.t.  (Oral.)     The  same  subject  continued  .         .         .  167 

140.  (Oral.)     The  same  subject  contiimed  .         .         .  171 

141.  (Written.)     To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of 

136,  137,  138,  139,  and  especially 

140 174 

142.  (Oral.)     To  use  certain  adjectives  and  adverbs 

correctly        .         .         .         .         .174 

143.  (Oral.)     The  same  subject  continued  .         .        .     179 

144.  (Oral.)     To   use   certain   prepositions   and    con- 

junctions correctly,  and  to  review 
Chapter  V 181 

145.  (Written.)     To  revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of 

141,  142,  143,  and  144  .         .         .     184 


CHAPTER  VI 

LETTER-WRITING    AS    A    FORM    OF   COMPOSITION 

146.  (Oral.)     To  note  the  rules  of  clearness  and  cour- 

tesy in  letter-writing     .         .         .     185 

147.  (Written.)     To  write  a  clear  and  courteous  busi- 

ness letter,  and  a  petition     .         .     188 

148.  (Written.)     To  write   a   courteous    note    to    a 

stranger 190 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


XXV 


149.    (Oral 
and 
Writteu. ) 


150.  (Oral 
and 

Written.) 

151.  (Written. 
1.52.    (Written. 

15.3.    (Written. 

154.  (Written. 

155.  (Oral 
and 

Writteu.) 


Topic  :  How  to  use  the  dash  properly 

Conclusion  :  Use  the  dash  to  indicate 

either  suspense  or  a  sudden  break 

in  the  thouglit,  but  never  use  it  as 

a  period  ..... 

Topic  :  Wlien  to  use  the  interrogation 
point      ....•• 

Conclusion  :     Use    the    interrogation 
point  at  the  end  of  every  question, 
even   if   this  be  but  a  part  of  a 
sentence         .         .         .         .         . 

To  write  three  formal  social  notes  . 

To    write    two    informal    notes    of 

acceptance    .         .         .         .         . 

To  reproduce  a  personal  note  . 
To  write  a  personal  letter 
Topic  :  When  to  use  the  exclamation 
point      ...... 

Conclusion:  Use  the  exclamation 
point  after  a  word,  clause,  or  sen- 
tence that  is  truly  exclamatory  in 
thought  


PAGE 

100 


192 
193 


193 
194 

194 

196 
197 

198 


199 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  LONG  THEME,  A  CHAIN'  OF  PARAGRAPHS 

156.  (Oral.)     To    copy    a  dialogue    correctly,    using 

indentions  and  quotation  marks   . 

157.  (Written.)     To  invent  a  dialogue,  and  punctuate 

its  vocative  expressions 

158.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  narrative  of  several 

paragraphs    ..... 

159.  (Oral.)     To  divide  a  narrative  subject  into  para- 

graphs ...... 


200 
202 
202 
20G 


XXVI  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

EXERCISE  PAGE 

160.  (Written.)  To  write  a  narrative  of  .several  para- 
graphs   208 

101.    (Oi-al.)     To    divide   a   descriptive    subject    into 

paragraplis 209 

162.  (Written.)     To  write  a  description  several  para- 

graphs in  length    ....     210 

163.  (Oral.)     To   criticise   the    paragraphing   of  two 

versions  of  Lincoln's  Gettysburg 
address,  and  to  learn  the  address 
by  heart 211 

164.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  logical  composition 

of  several  paragraphs    .         .         .214 

165.  (Oral.)     To   divide   an    expository   subject   into 

paragraphs    .         .         .         .         .215 

166.  (Oral.)     The  same  subject  continued  .         .         .     216 

167.  (Written.)     To  write  an  exposition  several  para- 

graphs in  length    ....     216 

168.  (Written.)     To  reproduce  a  brief         .         .         .217 

169.  (Written.)     To  write  the  brief  of  a  logical  argu- 

ment of  several  paragraphs  .         .217 

170.  (Written.)     To   write   a  logical   argument   con- 

sisting of  several  paragraphs         .     218 
A  list  of  conclusions  luider  various  exercises,  for  use 

iu  correcting  themes       ......     219 


Index 223 


THE   VALUE   OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  1.  (Oral.}  Read  aloud  the  fol- 
lowing pages  on  the  value  of  composition,  and 
repeat  their  substance:  — 

Tliere  is,  perhaps,  no  part  of  his  school  work 
that  a  beginner  likes  less  than  wi-iting  compo- 
sitions. Usually  he  "  can't  think  of  anything 
to  say,"  and  when  he  does  find  something  to 
say  he  discovers  that  using  pen  and  ink  is  a 
slow  and  difficult  way  of  saying  it.  Yet  the 
same  student  can  talk  freely  enough  to  his 
mates  ;  very  likely  he  is  fond  of  talking  to 
them.  Suppose  now  that  he  goes  away  on  a 
trip,  and  suppose  that  two  or  three  of  his  inti- 
mate friends  make  him  promise  to  write  them 
letters.  If  he  has  had  no  practice  in  compo- 
sition, one  of  two  things  is  sure  to  happen  : 
either  he  will  not  write  at  all,  and  consequently 
will  offend  those  to  whom  he  gave  his  word,  or 
else  he  will  write  so  stiffly  and  badly  that  his 
letters  will  seem  not  to  come  from  him.  The 
clever  and  hearty  good  fellow  of  yesterday  will 


2         A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

sound  stupid  and  cold  in  his  messages  of  to- 
day. On  the  other  hand,  if  he  has  really  ac- 
customed himself  to  express  his  thoughts  on 
paper,  he  will  be  able  to  say  his  say  in  a 
straight-forward  fashion.  His  correspondent 
will  laugh  as  he  reads,  and  will  remark,  "  That 
sounds  just  like  him."  In  short,  the  trained 
student  learns  to  be  himself  even  when  he 
"takes  his  pen  in  hand,"  and  there  are  few 
things  more  valuable  than  the  power  of  being 
one's  self. 

Also  he  learns  to  write  in  such  a  way  as  not 
to  be  misunderstood.  When  we  talk  we  de- 
pend not  only  on  words,  but  on  gesture  and 
the  expression  of  the  face  ;  but  wlien  we  write 
we  have  to  rely  wholly  on  words  ;  we  liave  no 
means  of  communication  except  black  marks 
on  the  paper  —  cold,  unsympathetic  black  marks. 
The  tone  of  a  man's  voice  tells  you  whether 
he  is  joking  or  not  ;  he  may  say  very  reckless 
things  if  he  says  them  with  a  kindly  look. 
There  is  no  kindly  look  in  a  manuscript ;  the 
words  themselves  must  be  kindly,  or  there  will 
be  trouble.  Think  how  hard  it  is,  even  in 
conversation,  to  avoid  being  misunderstood  ; 
then  see  how  much  harder  it  is  in  writing  to 
avoid  the  same  mishap. 


TtlE  VALUE  OF  COMPOSITION  3 

Being  one's  self  and  being  understood  are 
values  that  increase  with  increasing  years.  It 
is  extraordinarily  important  that  men  should 
understand  each  other's  statements.  The 
builder,  the  engineer,  the  merchant,  the  law- 
yer, not  to  mention  the  journalist  and  tlie 
preacher,  must  be  able  to  describe  and  narrate 
and  explain  in  a  trustworthy  fashion.  Busi- 
ness transactions,  no  matter  how  shrewd  in 
conception,  are  very  dependent  on  this  art  of 
saying  exactly  what  one  means,  and  saying  it 
in  written  words.  Business  to-day  is  largely 
carried  on  by  correspondence.  When  an  order 
is  given,  it  is  given  in  writing,  and  if  it  can  be 
misunderstood  somebody  may  lose  a  great  deal 
of  money.  It  is  said  that  a  misplaced  comma 
recently  cost  a  western  merchant  a  thousand 
dollars.^ 

In  society,  misunderstajidings  are  often 
caused  by  carelessly  worded  notes.  Even  if 
this  misfortune  does  not  ha|)})eu  to  the  lady 
who  writes  in  an  uneducated  way,  a  misfortune 
hardly  less  unpleasant  does  befall  her  ;  she  is 
to  a  certain  extent  shut  out  from  the  respect  of 
cultivated  women.  The  women  who  make 
good  society  are  every  year  becoming  better 
1  See  page  75. 


4        A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

educated.  They  very  naturally  smile  at  per- 
sons who  use  bad  English,  and  whose  notes 
of  invitation  or  acceptance  show  blunders  in 
spelling,  or  punctuation,  or  the  use  of  words. 
Mrs.  Malaprop,  a  character  in  an  old  English 
play,  said  in  a  very  "  genteel "  way  to  some 
guests,  "You  go  first,  and  we'll  precede  jow." 
The  guests  did  not  misunderstand  what  she 
meant,  but  you  may  be  sure  that  they  laughed 
in  their  sleeves. 

Learning  to  write  in  such  a  way  as  seldom  to 
be  misunderstood  is  a  matter  of  years  ;  but 
the  learner  will  come  to  possess  real  power  of 
expression  before  he  knows  it.  \This  book  is 
designed  to  point  out  certain  means  by  which 
a  writer  may  avoid  misleading  his  reader,  and 
may  acquire  words  enough  to  communicate  his 
ordinary  thoughts.  A  word  further  as  to 
gradual  improvement  in  writing.  If  the  stu- 
dent were  given  all  the  theory  of  writing  at 
once,  and  were  then  to  try  to  produce  a  perfect 
composition  by  keeping  all  the  theory  in  mind 
as  he  proceeded,  he  would  surely  make  a  sorry 
failure.  The  way  to  learn  to  write  is  to  write, 
just  as  the  way  to  learn  to  swim  is  to  swim. 
But  the  way  to  learn  to  write  correctly  is  to 
correct  the  details  of  what  one  has  written  ;   in 


THE   VALUE  OF  COMPOSITION  5 

other  words,  to  revise.  The  plan  of  this  book 
calls  for  little  attention  to  details  in  compos- 
ing, but  it  requires  much  careful  revision  of 
old  compositions.  Thus,  each  week,  a  day  is 
set  on  which  the  student  revises  his  pack  of 
papers  with  regard  to  one  matter ;  for  instance, 
the  j)lacing  of  periods.  As  he  learns  a  new 
rule  for  revision  he  goes  back  over  his  work 
and  tries  to  discover  Avhether  he  has  ever  failed 
in  respect  to  this  particular  principle.  Many 
a  pupil  will  never  learn  his  own  faults  except 
by  some  such  j^rocess  of  self-criticism.  In  a 
word,  the  pupil  is  to  become  his  own  critic 
by  learning,  little  by  little,  what  to  look  for. 
The  teacher  might  do  all  this  discovering  for 
him,  but  the  trouble  is  that  in  future  years  the 
teacher  can  hardly  be  at  the  elljow  of  every 
old  pupil  to  point  out  his  faults.  Doubtless, 
under  this  system  of  self-criticism,  the  begin- 
ner will  grow  heartily  tired  of  the  sight  of 
old  papers.  But  lie  will  clieer  up  when  he 
reflects  that  by  this  method  he  is  growing  ; 
he  is  constantly  surpassing  himself.  More- 
over, he  is  slowly  perfecting  a  body  of  com- 
positions (or,  as  we  shall  call  them,  themes) 
which  he  will  be  proud  of.  These  will  natu- 
rally remain  in  the  teaclier's  charge  until  the 


6         A   FIB  ST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

end  of  the  year,  and  then  become  the  property 
of  the  one  who  wrote  them. 

Whatever  is  most  characteristic  of  each  stu- 
dent, as  different  from  other  people  ;  whatever 
gift  is  his,  of  imagination,  or  reasoning  power, 
or  feeling,  or  humor,  —  all  will  find  some  ex- 
pression in  his  writing.  Every  human  being 
is  particularly  interested  in  something,  is  pecu- 
liarly apt  in  something.  To  find  out  what  most 
appeals  to  one's  self  in  literature  or  in  life,  and 
to  voice  one's  ideas  about  it,  is  to  know  a  keen 
pleasure.  It  is  more.  It  is  to  be  of  some  use 
to  one's  fellows.  As  human  beings  we  want 
other  human  beings  to  tell  us  the  best  that  is 
in  them.  If  a  man  has  ideas,  we  wish  to  share 
them — and  wish  him  to  learn  how  to  express 
them  that  we.  may  share  them.  If  he  has  no 
ideas,  the  effort  to  express  what  he  considers 
such  will  convince  both  him  and  us  of  the  fact. 
But  then  !  — everybody  has  ideas. 


CHAPTER   I 

THE  HISTORICAL  PARAGRAPH,   A   CHAIN  OF 
ACTUAL   EVENTS 

Exercise  2.    (OraJ.^   How  to  give  value  to 

a  historical  paragraph.  —  Before  considering  the 
topic  of  tlie  present  exercise,  let  us  be  sure  of 
the  meaning-  of  "paragraph."  If  you  look  at 
the  left-hand  edge  of  almost  any  page,  you  will 
note  that  all  the  lines  except  one,  or  two,  or 
perhaps  three,  begin  at  the  same  distance  from 
the  edge  of  the  paper.  The  shorter  lines  are 
said  to  be  "bitten  into,"  or  indented,  because 
each  begins  a  new  ijaragrcrph.  In  this  sense  of 
the  word,  a  paragraph  is  a  division  of  a  chap- 
ter, and  is  indicated  by  indention.  The  name 
jmrat/raph  is  also  applied  to  any  very  short, 
unindented  composition,  containing  not  more 
than,  say,  three  hundred  words.  You  can  find 
such  complete  paragraphs  in  journals  ;  you  can 
see  many  such  quoted  in  this  book  (for  example, 
that  on  p.  U).  Before  we  try  to  write  a  compo- 
7 


8        A   FIRST  3IANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

sition  consisting'  of  several  paragraphs  we  shall 
do  well  to  practise  with  short,  single  para- 
graphs. For  a  long  time,  therefore,  we  shall 
not  attempt  to  write  more  than  three  hundred 
words  on  any  one  subject.  Each  manuscript 
that  we  prepare  will  consist  of  only  a  page  or 
two,  and  we  shall  have  no  need  of  indention 
after  the  first  line.  Merely  remember  to  start 
the  first  line  of  a  composition  about  an  inch 
farther  to  the  right  than  the  rest.  Be  careful 
that  all  lines  of  writini/  except  the  first  begin  at 
a  uniform  distance  from  the  left-hand  edge  of 
the  2^aper.  Be  careful  that  all  except  the  last^^ 
etid  at  a  u7iiform  distance  from  the  right-hand 
margin.  If  your  paper  is  ruled  with  two  mar- 
gins, as  it  should  be,  then  each  line  of  words, 
except  the  first,  ought  to  begin  exactly  at  the 
left-hand  vertical  rule  ;  and  each  except  the 
last  ought  to  end  exactly  at  the  right-hand 
vertical  rule.  The  meaning  of  "  paragraph " 
being  clear,  let  us  seek  out  the  meaning  of 
"  historical  paragraph." 

A  chain  of  events  expressed  in  words  is  called 
a  narrative.  If  the  events  are  true,  the  compo- 
sition is  historical   narrative.     Since  every  one 

1  The  last  line  of  words  stops  whenever  the  thought  is 
finished. 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  9 

has  some  part,  not  only  in  his  country's  history, 
but  in  that  of  his  town,  or  school,  or  family, 
every  one  has  the  chance  to  talk  history  every 
day.  Now,  the  chief  merit  of  historical  nar- 
rative is  truth  ;  and  when  a  person  has  learned 
to  tell  or  write  of  a  series  of  events  without 
neglecting  or  distorting  the  truth,  he  has 
achieved  a  very  unusual  and  important  thing. 
To  realize  how  difticult  this  achievement  is, 
read  the  following  passage  by  Professor  Will- 
iam jNIinto,  a  Scotch  writer  :  — 

"It  commonly  happens,"  says  Mr.  Kinglake,  "that 
incidents  occurring  in  a  battle  are  told  by  the  most 
truthful  bystanders  with  differences  more  or  less  wide." 
In  the  attack  on  the  Great  Redoubt  in  the  battle  of  the 
Alma,  a  young  officer,  Anstruther,  rushed  forward  and 
planted  the  colors  of  the  Royal  Welsh  —  but  where? 
Some  distinctly  remembered  seeing  iiim  dig  the  butt  end 
of  the  flagstaff  into  the  parapet;  others  as  distinctly  re- 
membered seeing  him  fall  several  paces  before  he  reached 
it.  Similarly  with  the  incidents  of  the  death  of  the 
Prince  Imperial  ...  in  the  Zulu  War.  He  was  out  as  a 
volunteer  with  a  reconnoitring  party.  They  .  .  .  were 
resting,  when  a  band  of  Zulus  crept  up  through  the  long 
grass,  and  siuldenly  opened  fire,  and  made  a  rush  forward. 
Our  scouts  at  once  took  horse,  as  a  reconnoitring  party 
was  bound  to  do,  and  scamjiered  off,  but  the  Prince  was 
overtaken  and  killed.  At  the  court-martial  which  ensued, 
the  five  troopers  gave  the  most  conflicting  accounts  of  par- 
ticulars which  an  unskilled  investigator  wotdd  think  could 
not  possibly  have  been  mistaken  by  eye-witnesses  of  the 


10      A   FIEST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

same  event.  One  said  that  the  Prince  had  given  the 
order  to  mount  before  the  Zulus  fired ;  another,  that  he 
gave  the  order  directly  after ;  a  third  was  positive  that 
he  never  gave  the  order  at  all,  Ijut  that  it  was  given 
after  the  surprise  by  the  officer  in  command.  One  said 
that  he  saw  the  Prince  vault  into  the  saddle  as  he 
gave  the  order ;  another,  that  his  horse  bolted  as  he 
laid  hold  of  the  saddle,  and  that  he  ran  alongside  trying 
to  get  up. 

If  for  no  other  reason  than  learning  to  tell 
the  precise  truth  about  events  which  we  saw  or 
participated  in,  we  need  to  know  how  a  short 
historical  narrative  may  be  written.  In  school 
life,  moreover,  narrative  may  give  much  pleas- 
ure. Some  member  of  a  class  has  made  a  trip 
which  the  others  have  had  no  chance  to  take  ; 
or  has  seen  an  event  that  the  others  have  not 
seen  —  a  parade,  a  ceremony,  a  game,  a  per- 
formance, a  lucky  escape.  Whatever  the  par- 
ticular event,  it  makes  a  pleasant  memory  to 
share  with  friends. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  2  :  Tell  the  exact  truth 
about  events  as  they  seemed  to  you. 

Exercise  3.  {Writteti.)  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  of  legendary  history  read, 
ask  the  meaning  of  any  unfamiliar  words.  Then 
write,  from  memory,  five  or  six  sentences  giving 
the  substance  of  the  whole.      Do  not  hesitate 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  11 

to  use  the  uuthor's  words  if  they  occur  to  you. 
Before  handing  in  j^our  theme,  revise  carefully 
the  handwriting  and  the  spelling. 

THE   TREACHERY    OF   TARPEIA 

Tarpeia  came  down  the  narrow  path,  lier  earthen  jar 
balanced  on  her  graceful  head,  to  fetch  spring  water  for 
a  household  sacrifice.  Her  father  kept  the  castle.  She 
came  down,  a  straight  brown  girl,  with  eager  eyes  and 
red  lips,  clad  in  the  gray,  woollen  tunic  that  left  her 
strong,  round  arms  bare  to  the  shoulder.  Often  she  had 
seen  the  golden  bracelets  which  the  Sabine  men  wore  on 
their  left  wrists,  and  some  of  them  had  a  jewel  or  two 
set  in  the  gold ;  but  the  Koman  men  wore  none,  and  the 
Roman  women  had  none  to  wear,  and  'I'ai-peia's  eyes 
were  eager.  Because  she  came  to  get  water  for  holy 
things,  she  was  safe,  and  she  went  down  to  the  spring, 
and  there  was  Tatius,  of  the  Sabines,  drinking.  When 
he  saw  how  her  eyes  were  gold-struck  by  his  bracelet,  he 
asked  her  if  she  should  like  to  wear  it,  and  the  blood 
came  to  her  brown  face  as  she  looked  back  quickly  to  the 
castle  where  her  father  was.  "If  you  Sabines  will  give 
me  what  you  wear  on  your  left  arms,"  she  said,  for  she 
did  not  know  the  name  of  gold,  "  you  shall  have  the  for- 
tress to-night,  for  I  will  open  the  gate  for  you."  The 
Sabine  looked  at  her,  and  then  he  smiled  quickly,  and 
promised  for  himself  and  all  his  companions.  So  that 
night  they  went  up  stealthily,  for  there  was  no  moon, 
and  the  gate  was  open,  and  Tarpeia  was  standing  there. 
Tatius  could  see  her  greedy  eyes  in  the  starlight ;  but, 
instead  of  his  bracelet,  he  took  his  shield  from  his  left 
arm,  and  struck  her  down  with  it  for  a  betrayer,  and 
all    the    Sabine    men   threw   their  shields   upon  her   as 


12      .1    FIR.sr  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

tliey  passed.  So  she  died,  hut  her  luinie  remains  to  the 
rock  to  tliis  day.  —  Fra>xis  Makion  Ckawfohd:  Ave 
Roma. 

Exercise  4.  {Oral.)  Recall,  from  your  own 
experience,  some  short  chain  of  events  which 
you  saw  or  took  part  in.  The  following  list 
may  contain  or  suggest  a  topic  that  you  know 
about  from  experience.  Then  tell  the  series  of 
events  orally,  trying  to  state  the  exact  truth 
about  what  happened. 

1.  How  I  learned  to  swim.  2.  My  gardening.  3.  An 
adventure  with  a  boat.  4.  An  adventure  with  a  wheel. 
5.  An  adventure  with  a  dog.  6.  What  I  did  in  an 
hour,  yesterday.  7.  A  lucky  escape.  8.  My  first  bread- 
making.  ...  ,  , 
t        (!       ^  ' 

Exercise  5.  {Written.)  Write  a  trustwor- 
thy account,  a  page  in  length,  of  the  events  you 
narrated  in  Exercise  4.  Write  very  neatly. 
When  you  liave  finished,  examine  every  word 
to  see  that  it  is  spelled  correctly.  Erase,  with 
a  sharp  knife,  any  unnecessary  marks  and  any 
])lots.  Read  the  theme  aloud  to  yourself  if 
you  have  the  opportunity. 

Exercise  G.    (Oral.)    What  order  to  follow 

in  historical  narrative.  —  Read  aloud  the  fol- 
lowing comj^osition  :  — 


TEE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  13 

A  LUCKY  ESCAPE 
Once  T  was  watching  a  little  girl  and  her  father  fish. 
It  was  at  a  picnic.  1  was  standing  on  the  piei\  I  saw 
every  movement  they  made.  Her  father  called  out  to 
her  to  look  out,  or  she  would  fall  into  the  water.  She 
had  dropped  her  fish-pole,  and  was  trying  to  reach  it.  I 
got  it  for  her.  I  leaned  over  the  edge,  and  tried  to  see  if 
I  could  reach  it,  and  I  could.  I  stepped  back  a  couple 
of  paces  when  I  got  up,  and  fell  into  the  water ;  the  pier 
was  very  narrow.  The  girl's  father  tried  to  pull  me  up 
to  the  pier,  for  I  came  up  quickly  to  the  surface.  I  went 
down  again,  as  he  could  not  reach  me.  This  time  he 
pulled  me  out,  when  I  came  up  closer  to  the  pier  than 
before.  I  had  to  go  home  wet,  for  it  was  just  five  min- 
utes before  time  for  the  train  to  leave.  I  felt  as  if  I 
came  up  with  my  head  in  the  water,  and  my  feet  sticking 
out,  when  he  pulled  me  up. 

Now  read  the  preceding  passage  again,  sen- 
tence by  sentence,  to  see  whether  the  events 
are  stated  in  the  order  of  their  actual  occur- 
rence, that  is,  are  they  given  in  chronological 
order?  If  you  discover  several  that  are  dislo- 
cated from  their  proper  place  in  the  order  of 
time,  reconstruct  the  sentences  aloud.  Although 
there  are  sometimes  reasons  for  departing  from 
the  chronological  order,  the  reasons  must  be 
good  and  sufficient,  and,  however  good,  they 
hardly  concern  us  as  yet. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  6:  Follow  the  exact 
time-order  in  so  far  as  possible. 


14       A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  7.  (Written.)  Take  the  two 
themes  you  have  written,  and  examine  them 
closely  to  see  if  you  have  followed  the  exact 
chronological  order.  If,  at  any  point,  you 
have  failed  to  do  so,  interline  a  corrected  sen- 
tence ;  tliat  is,  write  the  correct  form  just 
above  the  wrong  form.  Examine  again  the 
spelling,  and  try  to  improve  the  neatness  of 
the  manuscript. 

Exercise  8.  {Written.)  After  hearing  the 
following  historical  paragraph  read,  reproduce 
it  as  accurately  as  you  can,  using  :  engaged, 
necessary,  violent,  intensity,  suffice,  precipitate, 
imperil.  Upon  finishing,  scrutinize  the  spell- 
ing and  the  handwriting.  Read  the  theme 
aloud  to  yourself  if  you  have  the  opportunity. 

AN   ACCIDENT   AND    A    HERO 

Two  workmen  were  engaged  in  fixing  a  liglitning 
conductor  on  tlie  summit  of  a  steeple  in  Belgium.  To 
accomplish  this  somewhat  difficult  and  delicate  task  it 
was  necessary  that  one  of  the  workmen  should  stand  on 
the  shoulders  of  liis  companion.  A  violent  gust  of  wind 
made  him,  while  in  this  position,  spill  some  molten  lead, 
which  fell  on  the  hand  and  forearm  of  his  friend.  Not- 
withstanding the  sudden  intensity  of  the  pain  thus  in- 
flicted, the  victim  of  this  accident  had  the  courage  to 
remain  motionless  while  the  lead  burnt  its  way  into  his 
flesh.    He  knew  tiuit  the  slitihtest  movement  might  suffice 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  15 

to  precipitate  his  companion  from  a  height  of  seventy 
feet  into  the  street  below,  and  he  bravely  endured  the 
pain  rather  than  imperil  the  life  of  his  fellow-worker. 
M.  A.  Karis,  slater,  is  the  hero  of  this  brave  deed,  and 
his  name  is  worthy  of  public  record. 

Exercise  9.  {Oral.)  Tell  to  the  class  an 
incident  out  of  your  own  experience,  keeping 
strictly  to  tlie  truth  as  it  appeared  to  you. 
The  following  list  may  contain  or  suggest  a 
subject :  — 

1.  My  fall.  2.  A  runaway.  3.  One  time  when  I 
played  truant.     4.  A  fight  I  participated  in. 

Exercise  10.  {Written.^  Write  a  trustwor- 
thy account  of  the  incident  related  in  Exer- 
cise 9.  Observe  the  chronological  order  closely. 
Before  handing  in  the  theme,  revise  the  spelling 
and  handwriting  carefully.  Read  the  theme 
aloud  to  yourself  if  you  have  the  opportunity. 

Exercise  11.  (Onil.}  How  long  should  our 
sentences  be?  —  If  one  listens  to  a  child  relat- 
ing eagerly  a  long  series  of  events,  one  \vill  be 
amused  by  the  fact  that  he  rarely  lets  his  voice 
fall.  He  is  anxious  to  give  every  detail  of  the 
story,  ])ut  is,  at  the  same  time,  anxious  to  get 
to  the  end.  He  is  blind  to  the  fact  that  his 
hearers  would  follow  him  better  if  they  were 


16      A   FinST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

allowed  to  grasp  each  occurrence  by  itself.  The 
child  will  act  in  a  .similar  way  when  he  comes 
to  read  aloud.  He  will  hurry  on  from  sentence 
to  sentence,  steadily  keeping  his  voice  up,  and 
quite  overlooking  the  periods.  Half  the  work 
of  learning  to  read  aloud  is  accomplished  when 
the  reader  can  let  his  voice  fall  at  a  period. 
When  the  child  comes  to  write  compositions, 
he  will  make  a  similar  mistake.  He  will  use 
ancrs  and  but's^  instead  of  periods,  thus  keeping 
the  poor  reader's  mind  on  the  stretch.  If  he 
writes  a  historical  narrative,  the  sentence  struc- 
ture will  sound  somewhat  as  follows  :  — 

A    LUCKY    ESCAPE 

One  day  I  was  on  a  pier  in  INIichigan  and  there 
I  saw  a  man  and  his  little  daughter  fishing  for  perch 
and  her  pole  fell  into  the  water  and  she  tried  to  get 
it  but  she  couldn't  and  I  said  i  would  help  her  and  I 
did  but  the  pier  was  narrow  and  when  I  got  the  pole 
and  stepped  backward  a  pace  or  two  I  fell  in  and  down 
I  went,  then  her  father  ti'ied  to  reach  me  when  I  came 
to  the  top  the  first  time  but  I  was  too  far  out  but  I 
came  up  nearer  the  pier  the  second  time  and  he  grabbed 
me  and  when  I  came  up  I  felt  as  if  my  feet  were  stick- 
ing up  in  the  air  and  I  was  sure  my  head  was  down  in 
the  water. 

^  Note  that  the  plural  of  a  short  word  like  and  usually 
shows  the  apostrophe,  like  a  i^ossessive.  Cf.  [compare] 
page  190,  footnote. 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  17 

Now  read  the  following  passage  aloud  as  a 
contrast  to  the  narrative  of  the  "  lucky  escape." 
Take  great  pains  to  let  the  voice  fall  at  each 
period. 

HOW  LINCOLN   LEARNED  TO   EXPRESS    HIMSELF 

"That  suggests,  Mr.  Lincoln,  an  inquiry  which  has 
several  times  been  upon  my  lips  during  this  conversation. 
I  want  very  much  to  know  how  you  got  this  unusual 
power  of 'putting  things.'  It  must  have  been  a  matter 
of  education.  Xo  man  has  it  by  nature  alone.  What 
has  your  education  been  ?  " 

"Well,  as  to  education,  the  newspapers  are  correct. 
I  never  went  to  school  more  than  six  months  in  my  life. 
But,  as  you  say,  this  must  be  a  product  of  culture  in  some 
form.  I  have  been  putting  the  question  you  ask  me  to 
myself  while  you  have  been  talking.  I  say  this,  that 
among  my  earliest  recollections,  I  remember  how,  when 
a  mere  child,  I  used  to  get  irritated  when  anybody  talked 
to  me  in  a  way  I  could  not  understand.  I  don't  think  I 
ever  got  angry  at  anything  else  in  my  life.  But  that  al- 
ways disturbed  my  temper,  and  has  ever  since.  I  can 
remember  going  to  my  little  bedroom,  after  hearing  the 
neighbors  talk  of  an  evening  with  my  father,  and  spend- 
ing no  small  part  of  the  night  walking  up  and  down,  and 
trying  to  make  out  what  was  the  exact  meaning  of  some 
of  their,  to  me,  dark  sayings.  I  could  not  sleep,  though 
I  often  tried  to,  when  I  got  on  such  a  hunt  after  an  idea, 
until  I  had  caught  it ;  and  when  I  thought  I  had  got  it, 
I  was  not  satisfied  until  I  had  repeated  it  over  and  over, 
until  I  had  put  it  in  language  plain  enough,  as  I  thought, 
for  any  boy  I  knew  to  comprehend.  This  was  a  kind  of 
passion  with  me,  and  it  has  stuck  by  me,  for  I  am  never 
c 


18      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

easy  now,  Avhen  I  am  Jiaiulliny  a  thought,  till  1  have 
bounded  it  north  and  bounded  it  south  and  bounded  it 
east  and  bounded  it  west.  Perhaps  that  accounts  for  the 
characteristic  you  observe  in  my  speeches,  though  I  never 
put  the  two  things  together  before."  —  Rev.  J.  P.  Gulli- 
ver, quoted  in  Riverside  Literature  Series,  No.  32. 

If  we  count  the  words,  we  shall  find  the  long- 
est sentence  of  this  paragraph  to  contain  more 
than  sixty.  But  this  is  an  unusual  length. 
Most  of  the  sentences  in  this  selection  have 
fewer  tlian  twenty-five.  It  is  no  easy  task 
to  write  fifty  or  sixty  words  between  periods 
without  tiring  the  reader.  His  mind  requires 
time  in  order  to  consider  each  link  of  the 
thought.  It  is  therefore  best  for  young  writers 
to  aim  at  comparatively  short  statements,  each 
ended  with  a  period. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  11 :  Seldom  place 
periods   thirty   words   apart. 

Exercise  12.  (Oral.)  How  many  sentences 
may  ordinarily  be  compounded  into  one  ?  —  Defi- 
nitions of  the  M'ord  sentence  do  not  always 
agree.  According  to  some,  every  sentence 
must  not  only  liave  a  subject  and  predicate  and 
make  "  couiplete  sense,"  but  must  begin  with  a 
capital  and  end  with  a  period.  Others  are  like 
that  given  in  a  recent  dictionary,  Tlie  Standard. 


THE   IIISTOIUCAL   PARAGRAPH  19 

This  authority  defines  sentence  as  "  a  related 
group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a 
l^redicate  Math  their  modifiers,  and  expressing  a 
complete  thought."  It  will  be  noted  that 
nothing  is  said  about  beginning  with  a  capital 
and  ending  with  a  period.  In  fact,  sentences 
are  constantly  being  compounded  into  one  by 
means  of  cmd  or  but.  '•  The  man  came  run- 
ning to  the  window  with  his  revolver  drawn, 
but  the  burglar  was  just  disappearing"  is  a 
compound  sentence,  made  of  two  simple  sen- 
tences. "  The  man  came  running  to  the  win- 
dow with  his  revolver  drawn  "  is  one  distinct 
thought ;  "  the  burglar  was  just  disappear- 
ing "  is  another  ;  yet  when  the  two  are  joined 
together  by  but,  the  first  is  distinguished  by  no 
period  and  the  second  by  no  capital. 

In  this  book  the  single  word  sentence  will 
mean  a  complete  statement  begun  by  a  capital 
and  ended  by  a  period.  But  we  must  find  a 
name  for  a  complete  statement  that  is  not  so 
begun  and  so  ended.  When  two  or  luore  sen- 
tences are  joined  in  a  compound  sentence,  let 
us  call  them  coinpoundlnu  sentences.^ 

1  There  are  practical  reasons  for  our  usinn-  tliis  term 
rather  than  "propositions,"  or  "coordinate  eUiuses,"  or 
"  principal  statements. " 


20      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Next,  we  must  ask  ourselves  how  many 
"  compounding  sentences  "  may  be  joined  in 
one  compound.  This  question  becomes  inter- 
esting when  we  look  again  at  the  composition 
of  the  small  boy  on  "a  lucky  escape."  If  we 
revise  that,  inserting  periods  wherever  they 
will  help  tlie  reader  to  grasp  the  larger  links 
of  the  story,  we  shall  have  something  like 
this  :  — 

A   LUCKY   ESCxirE 

1.  One  day  I  was  on  a  pier  in  IMichigan,  and  there  I 
saw  a  man  and  his  little  daughter  fishing  for  perch  from 
the  end  of  the  pier.  2.  Her  pole  fell  into  the  water,  and 
she  tried  to  get  it,  but  she  couldn't,  o.  I  said  I  would 
help  her,  and  I  did.  -1.  But  the  pier  was  narrow,  and 
when  I  got  the  pole  and  stepped  backward  a  pace  or  two 
I  fell  in,  and  down  I  went.  5.  Her  father  tried  to  reach 
me  when  I  came  to  the  top  the  first  time,  but  I  was  too 
far  out.  0.  I  came  up  nearer  the  pier  the  second  time, 
and  he  grabl)ed  me.  7.  When  I  came  up  I  felt  as  if  my 
feet  were  sticking  up  in  tlie  air,  and  I  was  sure  my  head 
was  down  in  the  water. 

As  they  now  stand,  all  the  sentences  are  com- 
pound. The  first  is  compounded  of  two,  the 
second  of  three,  the  third  of  two,  the  fourth  of 
tliree,  the  fifth  of  two,  the  sixth  of  two,  tlie 
seventh  of  two.  If  we  agree  that  such  sen- 
Conclusion  under  Exercise  12 :  Rarely  com- 
pound more  than  two  sentences  in  one. 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  21 

tences  are  long  enough  for  ordinary  purposes,  we 
may  now  draw  a  general  conclusion. 

Read  aloud  the  following  composition  repeat- 
edly, letting  the  voice  fall  wherever  a  period 
would  have  helped  you  to  grasp  a  complete  link 
in  tlie  chain  of  events.  Then  show  how  you 
would  piuictuate,  and  state  any  little  clianges 
you  would  make,  like  the  omission  of  unnec- 
essary conjunctions. 

MY  DEVICE  FOR  POLISHING  SHOES 
I  live  in  the  city  and  have  to  keep  my  shoes  always 
looking  decent  but  I  have  found  it  pretty  expensive  to 
pay  ten  cents  every  day  or  two  to  have  my  tan  shoes  put 
in  shape  and  I  determined  I  would  spend  so  mucli  money 
no  longer  but  I  would  do  my  own  polishing  and  save 
that  frequent  dime  for  things  I  couldn't  make,  and  at 
first  I  thought  I  would  buy  a  device  that  I  saw  for  sale 
on  the  street,  but  then  I  saw  I  should  have  to  stoop  over 
to  work  it  and  I  concluded  I  could  do  better,  I  put  a 
hinge  at  one  end  of  each  of  two  strips  of  wood  a  foot 
long  and  fastened  them  to  the  inside  of  my  door  one  a 
foot  above  the  other  and  then  lifted  the  upper  one  till  it 
was  perpendicular  to  the  dooi-  and  raised  the  lower  one  to 
fit  it  as  a  bracket,  and  then  I  put  a  shoe-form  into  my 
shoe  and  strapped  the  shoe  to  the  upper  stick  and  polished 
away  while  I  sat  in  a  chair  like  any  boot-black,  and  the 
wliole  machine,  shoe-forms  included,  cost  two  dollars  but 
it  has  long  since  paid  for  itself. 

Exercise  13.  QWriften.^  After  liearing  tlie 
following    narrative    paragraph    read,    ask    the 


22      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

meaning  of  any  unfamiliar  words  ;  then  write 
the  substance  of  it.  Before  handing-  in  your 
theme,  revise  carefully  the  handwriting,  the 
spelling,  and  the  length  of  sentences. 

AN    INTERESTING   EXPERIMENT 

Four  healthy  cocker  spaniels,  which  were  born  on 
Washington's  birthday,  1895,  —  the  males  being  brothers, 
and  the  females  sisters,  —  have  been  for  three  years  the 
subject  of  an  interesting  experiment  by  a  professor  in 
Clark  University.  Alcohol,  not  enough  to  produce  in- 
toxication, has  been  mixed  with  the  daily  food  of  two 
of  these  dogs.  The  others  have  had  none.  One  result 
is  that,  as  compared  with  the  sober  dogs,  the  alcoholics. 
Bum  and  Tipsy,  have  become  timid,  slovenly,  lazy,  and 
weak.  Yet  the  worst  effects  of  the  whiskey  diet  appear 
in  the  oft'sj^ring.  Bum  and  Tipsy  have  been  the  parents 
of  twenty  pups,  six  of  which  were  l)orn  dead,  and  eight 
malformed,  six  only  being  healthy.  On  tlie  other  hand, 
the  normal  jiair  have  had  sixteen  pups,  of  which  fifteen 
are  living  and  healthy.  Remembering  that  the  "  alco- 
holics "  have  never  been  drunk,  such  an  experiment  helps 
one  to  understand  the  downfall  of  many  a  family  whose 
head  has  prided  himself  on  being  a  "  moderate  "  drinker. 
—  The  Youth's  Companion. 

Exercise  14.  (Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
carefully  in  the  light  of  Exercises  11,  12,  and  13. 

Exercise  15.  (Written.')  Write  a  trust- 
worthy chronological  account  of  some  incident 
out  of  your  own  experience.     Before  handing 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  23 

in  your  theme,  revise  carefully  the  handwriting, 
the  spelling-,  and  the  length  of  sentences.  The 
following  list  may  contain  or  suggest  a  sub- 
ject :  — 

1.  How  I  got  lost.  2.  How  I  ran  away.  3.  The  cir- 
cumstances of  my  first  homesickness.  4.  How  we  spent 
the  Fourth.     5.  A  practical  joke. 

Exercise  IG.  (Oral.')  How  to  avoid  the 
Child's  Error  in  punctuation.  —  Read  aloud  the 
following  sentences,  in  which  commas  have 
been  substituted  for  the  original  periods. 
Keep  the  voice  up  at  every  comma,  and 
notice  how  childish  the  effect  is.  Then  read 
the  passage  again,  letting  the  voice  fall  at  the 
end  of  each  complete  statement,  as  at  a  period. 

Football  is  more  like  military  science  than  any  other, 
it  has  l^een  well  called  a  game  of  war,  the  training  of  the 
individual  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  soldier,  tlie  player 
must  understand  the  fundamentals  of  catching,  passing, 
dropping,  etc.,  the  same  as  the  soldier  does  his  manual 
of  arms,  he  must  learn  position  playing  —  end,  tackle, 
half-back,  etc.  —  the  same  as  the  soldier  that  of  pri- 
vate, sergeant,  captain,  the  whole  body  considered, 
the  eleven  must  know  its  plays  just  as  the  company 
or  battalion  its  marches  and  counter-marches,  offensive 
and  defensive  tactics  are  equally  necessary  to  both, 
superb  generalship  is  just  as  requisite  for  the  former  as 
the  latter,  the  rigid  discipline  of  the  army  is  the  disci- 
pline of  the  eleven. 


2-1:      A   FIB  ST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Notice  too   the    following    letter.       It    was 

written   inore    than   a   hundred    years   ago,   by 

a    duchevss,    to    a   countess.      That    was   when 

schooling  for  girls  was   thought  unnecessary  ! 

Mr.  Garrick  is  just  going  to  read  something  to  us,  its 
to  put  us  all  in  fits.  It  is  over  he  did  not  read  a  word, 
he  oidy  acted  a  scene,  which  he  actually  saw  in  Ireland, 
a  man  was  playing  with  his  only  Child  upon  a  bridge,  the 
rails  gave  way,  it  fell  backward  and  was  kill'd  upon  the 
spot,  he  never  spoke  afterwards — but  utter'd  inarticulate 
sounds  more  shocking  than  can  be  imagiu'd,  he  has  taken 
his  laugh  in  Lear  from  it — there  is  no  describing  how 
terrible  to  see  it  is,  we  wei'e  all  in  boisterous  spirits  and 
now  we  all  look  as  if  some  great  misfortune  had  happened 
to  us.  Miss  Lloyd  holds  her  hand  upon  the  side  of  her 
stomach,  and  seems  afraid  to  look  at  all  —  I  feel  quite 
gone,  as  if  somebody  had  di'op'd  an  extinguisher  and  put 
me  out  —  I  will  write  no  more  till  to-morrow. 

The  inability  to  see  when  a  complete  state- 
ment is  made,  and  to  mark  its  close,  may  be 
called  the  Child's  Fault  in  Punctuation.  In- 
stead of  placing  a  period  or  a  conjunction,  the 
untrained  writer  places  a  comma  and  prattles 
on.  In  the  following  sentences  correct  the 
Child's  Fault,  either  by  adding  and.,  hit,  or  for 
after  the  comma,  or  else  by  substituting  the 
])eriod  for  the  co:nma. 

1.  If  you  like  the  tea  go  to  the  counter  and  buy  some, 
we  have  a  great  variety  and  can  suit  you. 

2.  He  went  cheerily  to  the  war,  he  never  came  back. 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  25 

3.  Noticing  this  we  went  to  where  we  left  our  com- 
panions, finding  them  we  started  for  home. 

4.  I  don't  know  what  to  do  in  such  a  case,  it  is  too 
hard,  I  think  I'll  ask  the  teacher. 

Conclusion  vuider  Exercise  16  :  Never  try  to  make 
the  comma  do  the  work  of  the  period. 

Exercise  17.  (Wrltteti.')  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  write  the  snl)- 
stance  of  it,  and  revise  your  theme  with  refer- 
ence to  handwriting,  spelling,  and  the  Child's 
Error. 

THE    DEATH    OF    THE    BEAR 

The  bear  was  coming  on  ;  he  had,  in  fact,  come  on.  I 
judged  that  he  could  see  the  whites  of  my  eyes.  All  my 
subsequent  reflections  were  confused.  I  raised  the  gun, 
covered  the  bear's  breast  with  the  siglit,  and  let  drive. 
Then  I  turned,  and  ran  like  a  deer.  I  did  not  hear  the 
bear  pursuing.  I  looked  back.  The  bear  had  stojiped. 
He  was  lying  down.  I  then  remembered  that  the  best 
thing  to  do  after  having  fired  your  gun  is  to  reload  it.  I 
slipped  in  a  cliarge,  keej^ing  my  eyes  on  the  bear.  lie 
never  stirred.  I  walked  back  suspiciously.  There  was  a 
quiver  in  the  hind-legs,  but  no  other  motion.  Still  he 
might  be  shamming :  bears  often  sham.  To  make  sure, 
I  appi'oached,  and  put  a  ball  into  his  head.  He  didn't 
mind  it  now :  he  minded  nothing.  Death  had  come  to 
him  with  a  merciful  suddenness.  He  was  calm  in  death. 
In  order  that  he  might  remain  so,  I  blew  his  brains  out, 
and  then  started  for  home.  I  had  killed  a  bear !  — 
Charles  Dudley  Warner  :  How  I  Killed  a  Bear. 


26      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF. COMPOSITION 

Exercise  18.  QOral.')  Read  aloud  the  best 
theme  that  you  have  thus  far  written,  and  re- 
ceive criticisms.  At  each  period  say,  "  period." 
The  cLass  will  state  whether  the  story  sounds 
probable,  and  whether  the  sentences  seem  short 
enough. 

Exercise  19.  (Ond.^  How  to  punctuate  a 
complete  statement  beginning  -with  so.  —  Read 
aloud  the  following,  and  say  what  word  pre- 
cedes each  conjunction  so. 

The  poet  Bryant  was  the  editor  of  a  great  newspaper, 
and  so  he  was  obliged  to  be  in  the  city  daily.  Neverthe- 
less he  was  determined  not  to  sacrifice  his  health,  and  so, 
rain  or  shine,  he  regularly  walked  the  three  miles  to  his 
office  and  climbed  many  flights  of  stairs. 

If  we  take  out  the  and  before  so,  we  shall 
have  the  Child's  Fault  in  Punctuation;  we 
shall  be  separating  two  complete  sentences  by 
nothing  but  a  comma.  If  we  take  out  the 
and,  we  must  insert  either  a  period  or  a  semi- 
colon. The  first  sentence  about  Bryant  sounds 
well  as  it  is,  Avith  the  and.  To  avoid  a  succes- 
sion of  and's  in  the  second,  we  may  drop  one, 
and  use  the  semicolon.  Our  passage  will  then 
read  as  follows :  — • 

The  poet  Bryant  was  the  editor  of  a  great  newspaper, 
and  so  he  was  obliged  to  be  in  tlie  city  daily.    Nevei'theless 


THE  HISTOBICAL   PABAGBAPH  27 

he  determined  not  to  sacrifice  his  health  ;  so,  rain  or  shine, 
he  I'egularly  walked  the  three  miles  to  his  office  and 
climbed  many  flights  of  stall's. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  19 :  Place  a  semicolon 
or  a  period  before  the  conjunction  so  v^hen  and  does 
not  precede  it. 

Exercise  20.  (^Written. ^  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercises  16  and  19. 

Exercise  21.  (Oral.)  How  to  avoid  the 
monotonous  use  of  and  and  and  so.  —  For  most 
words  there  are  synonyms;  that  is  to  say,  otlier 
words  which  mean  about  the  same  tiling.  The 
following  words  and  phrases  are  often  synonyms 
for  and :  then,  after  this,  qfterirard.  after  a  while, 
thereupon,  presently,  likewise,  too,  besides,  also, 
meanwhile,  in  the  meantime,  while  this  was  yoinr/ 
on,  7noreover,  in  addition  to  this.  Surely  here  is 
a  fair  variety  of  substitutes,  though  indeed  and 
is  often  the  best  word,  and  often  no  conjunc- 
tion is  really  needed.  Read  aloud  the  following 
paragraph,  in  which  tlie  l)lanks  sometimes  indi- 
cate the  need  of  a  synonym  for  and,  sometimes 
only  the  need  of  a  period.  Then  read  it  aloud, 
sentence  by  sentence,  and  either  insert  a  syno- 
nym for  and,  or  say  that  a  period  is  required. 
Use  your  best  judgment.  Note  that  none  of 
the  synonyms  can  be  preceded  by  a  comma ; 


28      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

unreasonable  as  the  fact  may  be,  that  would 
produce  the  Child's  Error  again. 

AT    THE   APPLE-PARING    BEE 

The  men  pared  the  applies,  and  sonie  of  the  women 

pared  and  some  strung, the  stringing  was  regarded 

as  rather  the  nicer  work,  and  the  jirettiest  girls,  as  a  rule, 

did  it.     Jim  Paine  took  away  Zepheretta's  pan  of 

apples  and  knife,  and  got  a  dish  of  nicely  cut  quarters, 

and  a  needle  and  string  for  her. some  of  the  pretty 

girls  began  to  look  spiteful  and  sober.    one  of  them, 

Maria  Rice,  cut  her  finger,  for  she  was  paring,  and  said 
she  would  not  work  at  all;   she  would  go  home  if  she 

could  not  string.     Zepheretta  at  once  gave  up  her 

stringing  to  jNIaria  and  fell  to  paring  again,  while  Jim 

Paine  looked  bewildered  and  vexed.     he  edged  over 

beside  INIaria,  and  pared  and  cut  for  her  to  string,  and 
she  was  radiant.  As  for  Zepheretta  she  pared  away,  as 
patient  as  ever.  She  is  always  giving  up  to  other  people ; 
still  she  looked  rather  sober.  —  Mary  E.  Wilkins  :  The 
People  of  Our  Neighborhood. 

There  are  almost  as  many  synonyms  for  that 
very  familiar  expression,  and  so,  as  for  and. 
Each  l)lank  in  the  following  passage  stands  for 
and  so.  Read  the  whole  aloud.  Then  read 
it  again,  sentence  by  sentence,  inserting  in 
each  blank  one  of  the  following  synonyms,  — 
consequently,  in  consequence,  accordingly,  there- 
fore, as  a  result,  —  and  tell  what  })unctuation 
should  precede  it. 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  29 


A    VISIT    TO    MR.    EDISON 

In  1880  I  went  with  a  party  of  friends,  at  Mr.  Edison's 
invitation,  to  visit   his  Laboratory  at  Menlo  Park,  Xevv 

Jersey.     It  was  a  very  warm  summer  day we  were 

doubly  glad  to  reach  the  long,  cool  building  after  a  walk 
across  the  fields  from  the  station.  ]\Ir.  Edison,  a  thought- 
ful, smooth-faced  man  with  a  long  cigar  in  his  mouth, 

suggested  that   we  first   see    the   electric   lights we 

accompanied  him  to  a  room  partitioned  off  into  various 
little  retreats  where  the  experiments  were  being  con- 
ducted.    At  that  time  there  was,  I  suppose,  no  such  thing 

as  an  electric  light   anywhere  else  in  this  country 

w^e  looked  and  listened  with  the  greatest  curiosity.  Mr. 
Edison  said  that  his  first  great  difficulty  was  in  produc- 
ing a  sufficient  vacuum  in  the  glass  bulbs he  had 

been  driven  to  invent  a  special  form  of  exhauster,  which 
seemed  to  promise  better  results.  His  second  difficulty 
was  in  finding  a  material  for  a  filament.  He  had  how- 
ever experimented  with  scores  of  sul)stances had  hit 

upon  a  certain  vegetable  fibre  which  was  the  best  thing 
so  far  for  the  purpose.  The  inventor  next  led  the  way 
to  the  phonograpli,  a  simple  machine  with  tinfoil  wrapped 
around  a  cylinder.  He  told  us  how  he  had  discovered, 
a  few  years  before,  that  a  strip  of  paper  indented  liy 
telegraphic  dots  and  dashes  could  be  made  to  repeat  a 

message  over  and  over, ,  he  reasoned,  some  delicate 

substance  ought  to  be  capable  of  receiving  impressions 
from  sound  waves,  and  of  repeating  them  again.      He 

went  on  to  say  how,  ,  he  had    constructed  a  rude 

machine  and  had  given  a  friend  a  great  fright  by  succeed- 
ing in  making  it  return  a  distinct  sound.  Edison  now 
led  us  across  the  field,  jiointing  as  he  went  to  two  wires 
overhead  by  which  he  had  managed  to  convey  an  enor- 
mous power,  as  it  then  seemed.     Soon  we  reached  a  mini- 


oU       A    FlUST  MANUAJ.   OF  COMPOSITION 

ature  railway,  with  a  low  box-like  locomotive  and  a  tin}' 
carriage.  "  All  aboard  !  "  said  the  inventor,  with  a  quiet 
smile we  climl>ed  into  the  fragile  coach,  an  electri- 
cian mounted  the  little  locomotive,  and  away  we  went. 
"  Aren't  you  afraid  she'll  jump  the  track,  ]\Ir.  Edison  ?  " 
asked  my  father,  as  we  sped  round  a  startling  curve. 
"  Not  at  this  rate,"  was  the  answer ;  "  we  ran  her  at  forty 
miles  yesterday,  and  she  did  jump  the  track." 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  21 :  Often  place  a 
period  or  a  semicolon,  and  begin  a  nevr  statement 
w^ith  a  synonym  for  and  or  and  so. 

Exercise  22.  (Writte?i.)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  21.  In  so  doing,  re- 
member that  a  compounding  sentence  following 
a  semicolon  does  not  begin  with  a  capital. 

Exercise  23.  (Written.')  After  hearing  the 
following  narrative  paragraph  read,  reproduce 
it  as  exactly  at  possible,  taking  care  to  use  the 
words  consequently .,  accordin(jIij^  as  a  result. 
(These  words  may  properly  be  placed  on  the 
board  before  the  exercise.) 

Mil.  B right's   modesty 

John  Bright  and  AVilliam  E.  Gladstone  were  two  of 
the  most  eminent  Englishmen  ^  of  their  day.  Both  were 
distinguished  in  public  life  and  were  often  opposed  to 
each  other  in  their  views  of  particular  questions.     Conse- 

1  Are  you  positive  that  you  habitually  begin  EnjjUsh  with 
a  capital '.' 


THE  HLSTORICAL    PAliAGliAPH  31 

quently  they  were  often  thought  of  as  in  a  certain  sense 
rivals,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  influence  over  their 
fellow-men.  The  followers  of  Mr.  Gladstone  were  wont 
to  call  him  the  greatest  of  living  Englishmen.  Accord- 
ingly the  followers  of  ]\Ir.  Bright  applied  the  same  terra 
to  their  leader.  As  a  result  of  certain  public  acts  of 
Mr.  Gladstone,  many  people  who  really  knew  very  little 
of  the  man  spoke  harshly  of  him.  One  day  Mr.  Bright 
happened  to  overhear  a  nobleman's  wife  saying  severe 
things  of  Gladstone.  Turning  to  her,  he  asked  her  if  her 
son  had  ever  seen  that  gentleman.  INluch  surprised,  the 
lady  answered,  "  No."  "  Then,  Madam,"  said  Mr.  Bright, 
"permit  me  to  urge  you  to  take  him  at  once  to  see  the 
greatest  Englishman  he  is  ever  likely  to  look  upon." 

Exercise  24.  (0ml.')  Give  an  oral  account 
of  some  incident  from  the  experience  of  a  friend 
or  relative.  Take  the  greatest  pains  not  to 
misrepresent  in  tlie  smallest  degree  the  facts  as 
you  heard  them. 

Exercise  25.  {Written.)  Write  a  trust- 
worthy chronological  account  of  the  incident 
you  told  under  Exercise  24.  Revise  the  hand- 
writing, spelling,  length  of  sentences,  and  use 
of  commas  (to  be  sure  that  none  usurps  the  place 
of  a  period) ;  vary  the  connectives  and  and 
and  so. 

Exercise  26.  (^Oral.)  How  to  avoid  the 
monotonous  use  of  6</^  —  Head  aloud  the  follow- 


32      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

ing  passages.     Which  of  the  two  is  the  better? 

Why? 

(a)  They  found  the  bear  and  soon  had  him  in  close 
quarters.  Lyman,  not  ])eing  far  in  the  rear,  got  a  shot, 
but  shot  too  low  to  reach  the  animal,  but  in  a  short  time 
he  got  another  shot  which  despatched  bruin. 

{!))  Tiiey  found  the  bear  and  soon  had  him  in  close 
quarters.  Lyman,  not  being  far  in  the  rear,  got  a  shot, 
but  shot  too  low  to  reach  the  animal.  In  a  short  time, 
however,  he  got  another  shot,  whicli  despatched  bruin. 

Select  from  the  following  passage  five  words 
which  seem  to  be  synonyms  for  hut :  — 

BRADLEY    AS    A    DOG-TRAINER 

Bradley,  whom  we  called  Brad  for  short,  owned  a  very 
curious  and  interesting  fox-terrier  who  bore  the  haughty 
name  of  Duke.  Duke  was  always  fighting  with  other 
dogs,  no  matter  how  large.  Yet  at  home  he  did  not  seem 
a  quarrelsome  creature.  On  the  contrary,  he  was  every- 
body's pet,  and  had  a  charming  way  of  pawing  your  hand 
in  request  for  petting.  In  short,  he  was  a  general  favorite 
so  long  as  he  stayed  indoors.  Nevertheless  he  had  one 
lialiit  which  injured  him  in  the  eyes  of  all.  Duke 
might  be  asleep  on  a  rug.  and  apparently  dead  to  the 
world ;  yet  if  a  carriage  passed  he  was  sui'e  to  hear  it, 
and  forthwith  to  bolt  out  the  back  door.  In  a  moment 
his  fierce  little  bark  could  be  heard  as  he  snapped  at  the 
horse's  heels.  Drivers  always  tried  to  whip  him.  Duke, 
however,  was  never  known  to  be  hit.  Notwithstanding 
this  fact  Brad  determined  to  give  the  dog  rough  punish- 
ment to  stop  the  habit.  He  brought  out  his  riding  whip 
one  evening  and  sat  ready  to  give  chase  when  the  terrier 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  33 

should  make  a  sally.  Contrary  to  expectation,  the  dog 
at  once  lay  down  quietly  on  the  lawn.  Carriage  after 
carriage  passed ;  nevertheless  Duke  made  no  motion,  and 
seemed  to  take  no  interest  in  their  existence.  After  an 
hour  of  waiting.  Brad  went  in  with  a  feeling  of  mingled 
pride  and  disappointment ;  yet  no  sooner  had  he  made 
ready  for  bed  than  Duke's  voice  rang  out  cheerfully  in 
full  yelp.  Brad  went  to  bed,  his  countenance  full  of 
disgusted  resignation. 

Conclusion  mider  Exercise  26:  Instead  of  the 
comma  before  but  sometimes  place  a  period  or  a 
semicolon  and  begin  a  nevr  statement  with  a  syno- 
nym for  but. 

ExEECiSE  27.  (  Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  26  ;  that  is  to  say,  if 
but  is  used  too  often  to  sound  well,  sometimes 
place  a  period  or  semicolon,  and  begin  a  new 
statement  with  i/et,  or  nevertheless,  or  on  the  con- 
trary, or  however.  However  should  stand  a  little 
removed  from  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  story  of  Bradley  as  a  Dog- 
Trainer.  Remember  that  a  sentence  begins 
with  a  capital,  but  that  a  compounding  sentence 
begins  with  a  small  letter. 

Exercise  28.  {Written.)  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  reproduce  it,  using 
the  Avords  eamfaign,  e7iga;/e7nent,  knitting,  abom- 
inable, issue,  counteract.     In  revising  it  try  to 


34      A   FIEtiT  .MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

avoid  any  excessive  use  of  but  or  its  synonyms. 
But  occurs  but  twice  in  the  whole  passage. 

wp:llington's  composure 

The  Duke  of  Wellington,  in  the  Peninsula  campaign, 
was  sitting  at  breakfast  with  Picton  and  other  officers, 
just  before  an  engagement.  Orderlies  were  riding  up  to 
the  tent  every  few  minutes  with  news  of  the  steady 
approach  of  the  enemy.  The  duke  did  nothing,  but  by 
the  knitting  of  his  brows  was  supposed  to  be  deep  in 
thought.  Presently  he  turned  to  his  companion  and 
asked,  "  Was  your  egg  well  cooked,  Picton  ?  ]\Iine  was 
al)uminable."  The  '•  Iron  Duke  "  was  not  careless  of  the 
issue  of  the  battle  to  l)e  fought,  Ijut  had  made  his 
arrangements  long  before,  and  knew  exactly  how  the 
enemy  would  advance,  and  what  he  should  do  to  counter- 
act them.  — O.  S.  Makden  :   The  Secret  of  Acliiecement. 

Exercise  29.  {Ond.)  Dreams  stand  mid- 
way between  truth  and  fiction.  Very  often 
they  reproduce  what  has  actually  happened, 
and  more  often  what  has  neither  happened  nor 
can  happen.  If  we  give  an  exact  account  of  an 
actual  dream,  tlien,  no  matter  how  impossible 
the  events  of  the  dream,  our  account  is  surely 
Idstorical  narrative.  The  following  is  such  an 
account :  — 

One  night,  as  T  lay  half  asleep,  I  heard  the  watchman 
on  his  rouiul,  .  .  .  examining  the  fastenings  of  my  front 
door.      At   once  1  began   to  dream  that  I  was  revisit- 


THE  HISTORICAL   PARAGRAPH  35 

ing  my  fatlier's  house,  the  home  of  my  childhood.  Tlie 
family  were  at  breakfast  in  the  front  parlor,  while  [ 
walked  through  the  back  rooms,  examining  the  doors 
and  the  windows,  and  found  it  impossible  to  close  and 
to  fasten  them.  I  then  took  a  bath,  dressed  myself,  and 
wallved  out  into  a  large  garden  behind  the  house.  It 
was  filled  with  tropical  trees,  of  which  some  were  young. 
The  old  ones,  which  I  recognized  after  an  absence  of 
thirty  years,  astonished  me  by  their  surprising  luxuri- 
ance. A  lovely,  trailing  convolvulus,  in  full  bloom, 
attracted  my  admiration.  After  walking  for  some 
time  I  came  upon  a  plum  tree  which  was  very  small 
when  I  left  home,  and  had  now  reached  a  height  not 
exceeding  twelve  feet.  This  slow  growth  excited  con- 
siderable surprise  on  my  part.  Returning  to  the  house, 
I  passed  the  day  with  my  parents,  and,  at  night,  under- 
took to  shut  up  the  house,  Init  could  not  fasten  any  of 
the  doors  or  windows.  This  caused  me  great  uneasiness, 
for  there  was  a  large  gypsy  camp  not  far  from  the  east 
end  of  the  building.  My  anxiety  was  presently  justified 
by  a  noise  in  the  parlor.  Hastening  to  the  door,  and 
looking  into  the  room,  T  saw  a  large  painting  disappear- 
ing through  a  hole  in  the  wall  next  to  the  encampment 
of  thieves.  I  immediately  cried  out  to  frighten  away 
the  robbers;  and  was  awakened  .  .  .  just  in  time  to 
hear  the  watchman  walking  down  the  front  steps,  after 
the  completion  of  the  investigation  which  had  suggested 
my  dream.  —  Henry  M.  Lyman,  JNI.D.  :  Insomnia. 

Having  read  Dr.  Lyman's  account  of  a  dream, 
give,  orally,  an  exact  report  of  some  dream  of 
your  own.  You  may  not  be  able  to  recall  all 
the  particulars ;  but  be  as  faithful  as  possible 
in  narrating  those  you  do  recall. 


36      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  30.  (Wntttm.')  Write  a  triist- 
wortliy,  orderly  account  of  the  same  dream. 
Revise  your  theme  with  regard  to  handwriting, 
spelling,  the  length  of  sentences,  and  the  mo- 
notonous use  of  and,  and  so,  but. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE  FICTITIOUS   PARAGRAPH,   A  CHAIN  OF 
IMAGINED   EVENTS 

Exercise  31.  (^Oral.)  Spell  and  define  the 
following  group  of  words  :  venturesome,  lone- 
liness, perilous,  formidable,  occurrence,  suspi- 
cious, perplexity,  suspense,  perceive,  amazement. 

Bide  1  for  Spelling. — Final  e  is  kept  when 
a  suffix  beginning  with  a  consonant  is  added. 
Examples:  venturesome,  loneliness,  amazement. 
Exceptions  :  awful,  truly. 

Exercise  32.  (^Written.^  Write  a  page  or 
two  concerning  an  imaginary  adventure,  em- 
ploying the  words  of  Exercise  31.  Give  your 
paper  an  appropriate  title.  The  story  may  be 
as  fanciful  as  you  please,  disregarding  all  laws 
of  probability. 

Exercise  33.    (Wntten.')    After  liearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any   unfamiliar  words.      Then    reproduce    it. 
37 


88      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Revise    handwriting,   spelling,   length    of    sen- 
tences, excessive  use  of  and,  and  so,  and  but. 

WE  KNOW   NOT   WHAT   THE   DAWN   MAY  BRING 
FORTH 

Once  upon  a  time,  in  Turkey,  the  Minister  of  War, 
called  the  chief  farrier  of  the  army  and  ordered  him  to 
have  made  immediately  two  hundred  thousand  horse- 
shoes. "  It  is  the  order  of  his  jNIajesty  that  these  horse- 
shoes be  ready  by  to-morrow ;  if  not,  your  head  will  pay 
the  penalty."  The  poor  farrier  went  home  iu  despair, 
knowing  that  he  could  not  make  a  fifth  part  of  the  horse- 
shoes demanded.  "  Cheer  up,"  said  his  wife,  "  for  we 
know  not  what  the  dawn  will  bring  forth."  But  the  far- 
rier could  not  cheer  up.  Late  that  night  there  was  a 
tremendous  knocking  at  his  door.  The  poor  farrier, 
trembling  with  fear,  went  and  of)ened  it.  "  Haste,  far- 
rier, let  us  have  sixteen  nails,  for  the  Minister  of  War 
has  been  suddenly  removed  to  Paradise  by  the  hand  of 
Allah."  The  farrier  gathered,  not  sixteen  but  forty  nails 
of  the  best  he  had,  and,  handing  them  to  the  messenger, 
said :  "  Nail  him  down  well,  friend,  so  that  he  will  not 
get  up  again,  for  had  not  this  happened,  the  nails  would 
have  been  required  to  keep  me  in  my  coffin."  —  Abridged 
from  AuLER  and  Ramsay's  Told  in  a  Coffee  House. 

Exercise  34.     (Oral.')    How  to  punctuate  two 

sentences   or  two  predicates   compounded  by  and. 

—  Read  aloud  tlie  following  :  — 

In  the  late  war  with  Spain,  North  and  South  fought 
side  by  side.  In  the  Civil  War  a  Lee  and  a  Grant  were 
enrolled  on  opposite  sides.  In  the  war  for  Cuban  freedom 
a  Lee  and  a  Grant  were  enrolled  on  the  same  side. 


1/  C 


THE   FICTITIOUS   PARAGRAPH  39 

Note  that  in  the  preceding  sentences  there 
are  three  ancVs^  and  no  one  of  them  is  preceded 
by  a  comma.  Try  to  explain  why  the  comma 
is  not  present. 

Read  aloud  the  following  sentences,  and  try 
to  say  why  the  punctuation  is  correct :  — 

Galvan  and  Franklin,  ]\Iorse  and  Field  are  the  four 
greatest  names  in  the  early  history  of  the  electrical 
science  and  art.  Bell  and  Edison,  ]\Iarconi  and  Tesla 
are  perhaps  the  four  greatest  names  in  the  recent  history 
of  that  science  and  art. 

Why  are  Galvan  and  Franklin  set  off  to- 
gether by  a  comma?  Why  are  Bell  and  Edi- 
son grouped  by  a  comma  ? 

Now  read  aloud  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  A  leading  medical  journal  of  London  not  long  ago 
offered  a  hundred  pounds  to  any  family  that  had  lived  in 
the  city  continuously  for  three  generations,  and  it  has 
never  been  taken. —  lite  Youth's  Companion. 

2.  If  the  traveller  tells  us  truly,  strike  the  savage  with 
a  bi-oad  axe  and  in  a  day  or  two  the  flesh  shall  unite  and 
heal  as  if  you  struck  the  blow  into  soft  pitch,  and  the  same 
blow  shall  send  the  white  to  his  grave.  —  Emerson. 

3.  ]\Ir.  Lincoln  would  not  take  a  case  unless  he  really 
thought  the  client  ought  to  win,  and  it  came  to  be  under- 
stood by  court,  liar,  jury,  and  spectators,  when  Abraham 
Lincoln  brought  a  suit,  that  his  client  was  in  the  right, 
and  ought  to  obtain  a  verdict. 

4.  To  be  an  Phiglish  gentleman  was  in  Wellington's 
mmd  the  highest  title  of  honor.      It  was  his   religion 


40      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

almost,  and  he  adhered  most  scrupulously  to  the  rules  of 
conduct  that  guided  the  class  in  his  days.  He  absolutely 
■worshipped  punctuality,  and  prided  himself  on  never  being 
late  for  a  train.  —  O.  S.  Harden:  The  Secret  of  Achieve- 
ment. 

5.  One  day  at  dinner  a  gentleman  — moved,  it  may  be, 
by  the  sight  of  Mr.  Gladstone's  conscientious  masticatioft 
of  his  food,  for  the  great  statesman  was  not  one  to  eat  in 
haste  and  repent  at  leisure  —  remarked  what  a  victim  to 
dyspepsia  Carlyle  had  been. 

"Yes,"  said  Mr.  Gladstone,  "he  smoked  too  much.  I 
have  been  told  that  he  ate  quantities  of  sodden  ginger- 
bread, and  he  was  a  rapid  feeder.  I  lunched  with  him 
one  day,  and  he  tumbled  his  food  into  his  stomach.  It 
was  like  posting  letters." 

After  a  slight  pause  INIr.  Gladstone  added,  "Carlyle 
did  not  seem  to  use  his  jaws,  except  to  talk  ! "  —  The 
Youth's  Companion. 

G.  At  last  the  evening  came  and  Claudius  appeared 
in  Barker's  room  arrayed  in  full  evening-dress.  As 
Barker  had  predicted  to  himself,  the  result  was  surpris- 
ing. Claudius  was  far  beyond  the  ordinary  stature  of 
men,  and  the  close  fitting  costume  showed  off  his  athletic 
figure,  while  the  pale,  aquiline  features,  with  the  yellow 
beard  that  looked  gold  at  night,  contrasted  in  their  refine- 
ment with  the  massive  proportions  of  his  frame,  in  a  way 
that  is  rarely  seen  save  in  the  races  of  the  far  north  or  the 
far  south.  —  F.  Marion  Crawford:  Doctor  Claudius. 

Note  tliat  in  each  of  these  selections  a  comma 
does  precede  and^  because  it  keeps  apart  com- 
plete sentences  that  are  compounded   in  one.^ 

1  The  third  sentence  under  4  is  not  complete.  It  lacks 
what? 


THE  FICTITIOUS   PARAGRAPH  41 

The    comma   shows    where   the    first   sentence 

ends. 

In  the  following  sentences  what   advantage 

wonld   result   from    inserting   a   comma    after 

"  anger ""  and  after  "  departure  "  ? 

For  the  time-being  the  cruel  nurse  managed  to  clioke 
her  anger  and  the  child,  which  she  had  abused  so  shame- 
fully, had  an  easier  time  of  it.  Soon  afterwards  she  took 
her  departure  and  the  little  boy,  unable  to  conceal  his 
feelings,  danced  with  delight  to  see  her  go. 

Read  aloud  the  following  paragraph,  and  say 
where  it  seems  to  you,  without  yet  having  a  rule 
to  go  by,  that  commas  ouglit  to  precede  and. 

AN   ACCURATE   PRINCESS 

An  English  magazine  told  recently  an  incident  in  the 
life  of  the  Princess  of  Wales,  which  shows  how  accuracy 
and  thoroughness  were  the  means  of  avoiding  a  possible 
catastrophe.  The  princess  is  an  enthusiastic  amateur 
photographer  and  is  in  the  habit  of  taking  pictures  of 
the  scenery,  people,  and  animals  in  and  about  Sandring- 
ham.  Several  months  ago,  while  out  in  the  park,  she 
took  a  snap-shot  of  the  railroad  bridge  at  Wolferton 
while  a  freight-train  was  crossing  it.  When  the  picture 
was  printed,  the  princess  observed  a  slight  curve  in  the 
bridge.  She  went  to  the  place  from  which  she  liad  taken 
it  and  carefully  inspected  the  structure.  There  was  no 
such  curve  in  it  perceptible.  She  waited  till  another 
train  crossed  and  took  another  pictui-e.  Again  the 
depression  appeared  at  the  same  point  in  the  bridge. 
She  carried  the  pictures  anxiously  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  who  sent  for  the  superintendent  of  the  railroad. 


42      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

On  inquiry  it  was  found  that  the  engineers  of  the  trains 
had  perceived  a  vibrating  motion  when  crossing  the 
bridge.  It  was  examined  and  condemned.  —  Abridged 
from  The  YoutJi's  Companion. 

We  may  fairly  infer  from  the  preceding  ex- 
amples that  when  two  complete  sentences  are 
componnded  in  one  by  and,  a  comma  should  be 
placed  between  them,  before  the  and.  But 
suppose  the  sentence  is  not  really  compound, 
because,  while  it  has  two  predicates,  it  has  only 
one  subject,  thus :  "  She  waited  until  another 
train  crossed  and  took  another  picture."  How 
shall  we  punctuate  a  sim[)le  sentence  having 
two  predicates?  Before  answering  this  ques- 
tion examine  carefully  the  following  selections, 
and  say  whether  you  think  them  correctly 
punctuated  :  — 

1.  Tlie  young  poet  Tennyson  was  fond  of  "putting 
the  stone,"  and  could  hurl  the  crowbar  farther  than  any 
of  the  neighboring  farm-laborers. 

2.  Professor  Nasse,  a  well-known  Bei'lin  scientist,  with 
a  friend  and  two  guides,  all  roped  together,  was  crossing 
a  snow-bridge  in  the  Alps  a  few  weeks  ago,  when  the 
professor  and  one  guide  fell  into  a  crevasse,  and  hung 
there  half  an  hour.  To  relieve  the  intolerable  strain,  the 
leading  guide  cut  the  rope  above  him  and  disappeared 
into  the  depths.  The  others  were  then  al)le  to  pull  Xasse 
up,  but  he  was  dead.  The  guide  who  so  willingly  offered 
his  own  life  was  afterward  found  unhurt.  "  1  had  to  try 
to  save  him,"  lie  said,  simply;  "  that  is  all." —  The  Youth's 
Companion. 


THE  FICTITIOUS   PARAGRAPH  43 

If  Ave  write,  '*  General  Fuiiston  with  liis  men 
swam  the  river  and  attacked  the  enemy,"  it  is 
clear  that  no  comma  is  needed  before  and;  the 
action  is  too  rapid.  Bnt  the  case  is  different 
if  we  write,  "  General  Funston  procured  a  long- 
rope  and  had  it  carried  across  the  river  by  two 
volunteers,  and  then  sent  over,  by  tlie  aid  of 
the  rope,  rafts  carrying  two  companies."  Here 
there  must  be  a  pause  before  and,  for  the  carry- 
ing across  of  the  rope  was  in  itself  a  separate 
feat,  and  should  receive  the  distinction  of  at 
least  a  comma.  It  is  clear  that  if  two  actions 
joined  l)y  and  are  thought  of  as  almost  one 
they  must  not  be  kept  apart  Ijy  a  comma  ;  but 
if  they  are  thought  of  as  quite  distinct  they 
should  be  so  separated.  Sometimes  a  simple 
sentence  with  two  long  predicates  differs  from 
a  compound  only  in  the  omission  of  the  second 
subject,  and  therefore  requires  the  comma. 
Read  aloud  the  following  passage,  and  say 
where,  according  to  your  judgment,  commas 
should  be  inserted  :  — 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  ^Yas  a  great  poet  and  essayist 
and  was  even  greater  as  a  man  than  as  a  writer.  Emerson 
seemed  always  nol)ler  than  anything  he  wrote  and  his 
goodness  recalled  jMilton's  saying  that  he  who  would  be 
a  poet  must  make  his  life  a  true  jioem.  iMuerson  was 
gracious  in  manner  and  spoke  to  the  couunonest  people 


44      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF   COMPOSITION 

as  if  he  expected  to  leani  from  them.  A  certain  young 
man  noticed  this  trait  of  Emerson  and  dechired  that 
Emerson  greeted  the  most  ordinary  people  like  a  king 
of  Spain  receiving  a  nobleman  who  bore  a  message  from 
tiie  Great  INIogid. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  34 :  Place  a  comma  be- 
tw^een  compounding  sentences  joined  by  and,  and 
sometimes  between  predicates  so  joined. ^ 

Exercise  35.  (  Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  34. 

Exercise  3(3.  (Oral).  Spell  and  define  the 
following  new  words  :  conspiracy,  conceive, 
believe,  deceive,  })erceive,  suggestion,  secrecy, 
comprehend,  moving,  complication,  perplexity, 
plausible,  pretence,  pretext,  shrewd,  suspicious, 
formidable,  inevitable,  cliangeable,  courageous. 

Mule  2  for  Spelling.  —  Final  e  is  dropped  if 
the  suffix  added  begins  with  a  vowel.  Ex- 
ample :  move,  moving.  Exceptions :  Words 
ending   in   ce   or  //e  retain   e  l^efore  ahh,  ahh/, 

1  Sometimes  the  .semicolon  is  placed  before  and^  as  in  the 
following:  "I  know  boys  who  have  belt-lines  of  electric 
tramways  circulating  in  their  garrets  ;  and  a  boy  who,  last 
year,  was  the  despair  of  his  teachers,  now  deserves  recogni- 
tion in  the  manual  training  exhibit  as  the  clever  inventor  of 
a  most  ingenious  electrical  boat."  But  we  need  not  con- 
cern ourselves  with  this  usage  at  present,  since  it  tempts 
the  student  to  construct  loner,  ramblimr  sentences. 


THE  FICTITIOUS  PARAGRAPH  45 

and  ous.  Thus :  change,  changeable ;  peace, 
peaceable  ;  notice,  noticeable  ;  courage,  coura- 
geous. 

Exercise  37.  (^Written.^  Use  many  of  the 
words  of  Exercise  36  in  writing  an  account  of 
an  imaginary  conspiracy.  Give  your  paper 
an  appropriate  title.  The  story  may  be  as 
fanciful  as  you  please,  disregarding  all  laws 
of  probability.  A  cons})iracy  in  which  you 
imagine  yourself  to  have  taken  part  is  the 
easiest  to  write  about. 

Exercise  38.  (Oral.')  Read  aloud  your 
best  recent  theme  and  receive  the  criticisms 
of  the  class. 

Exercise   39.    (Oral.')     How    to   punctuate 

two  sentences  or  two  predicates  compounded  by 
hut.  —  Read  the  following  passages  aloud  ;  point 
out  any  compound  sentences  in  which  two  com- 
plete statements  are  joined  by  hut;  then  ex- 
plain why,  in  your  opinion,  all  the  cases  are 
not  punctuated  alike. 

1.  There  is  no  sucli  thing  as  a  trifling-  dishonesty,  but 
there  may  be  dishonesty  for  trifling  gain.  —  Phineas  T. 
Barnum. 

2.  Some    men    go    a-hunting,    some    a-fishing,    some 


46      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

a-gaiiiing,  some  to  war;  but  none  have  so  pleasant  a 
time  as  they  who  in  earnest  seek  to  earn  their  bread.  — 
Henry  D.  Tuoreau  :    WaUlen. 

3.  A  man  should  not  on  ordinary  occasions  look  as 
if  he  were  fresh  from  tlie  hairdresser's,  or,  as  the  homely 
saying  is,  "as  if  he  had  just  come  out  of  a  bandbox." 
There  is  a  graceful  and  easy  negligence  which  is  per- 
fectly consistent  with  neatness;  but  prim  and  superlative 
propriety  of  dress  is  unpleasing  and  unmanly.  —  W.  T.  S. 
Hewett  :  Note.t  for  B<i//s. 

4.  Daisies  have  stari-ed  fields  in  Scotland  since  men 
began  to  plough  and  reap,  but  Burns  saw  them  as  if  they 
had  sprung  from  the  ground  for  the  first  time ;  forgotten 
generations  have  seen  the  lark  rise  and  heard  the  cuckoo 
call  in  England,  but  to  Wordsworth  the  song  from  the 
upper  sky  and  the  notes  from  the  thicket  on  the  hill  were 
full  of  the  music  of  the  first  morning.  —  II.  W.  Mabie: 
Books  and  Culture. 

5.  Abraham  Lincoln  liad  a  hearty  contempt  of  the 
small  boasts  of  political  candidates  in  his  day,  and  on 
one  occasion  when  (General  Cass's  friends  were  glorifying 
tlieir  nominee  for  liis  supposed  services  in  the  Indejien- 
dence  War,  he  said :  "  Did  you  know,  Mr.  Speaker,  that 
I  am  a  military  hero?  In  the  days  of  the  Black  Hawk 
War  I  fought,  bled,  and  came  away.  I  was  not  at  Stil- 
iran's  defeat,  but  I  was  about  as  near  it  as  General  Cass 
was  to  Hull's  surrender;  and  like  him,  I  saw  the  place 
very  soon  afterwards.  It  is  quite  certain  I  did  not  break  my 
sword,  but  I  bent  my  musket  very  badly  on  one  occasion. 
If  General  Cass  went  in  advance  of  me  picking  whortle- 
berries, I  guess  I  sui-passed  him  in  charges  on  the  wild 
onions.  If  he  saw  any  live-fighting  Indians,  it  was  more 
than  I  did,  but  I  had  a  good  many  bloody  struggles  with 
the  mosquitoes;  and  although  I  never  fainted  from  loss 
of  blood,  I  can  truly  say  I  was  often  very  hungry." 


THE  FICTITIOUS   PARAGBAPH  47 

6.  The  civilized  man  has  built  a  coach,  but  has  lost  the 
use  of  his  feet.  He  is  supported  on  crutches,  but  loses 
so  much  support  of  muscle.  He  has  got  a  fine  Geneva 
watch,  but  he  has  lost  the  skill  to  tell  the  hour  by  the 
sun.  —  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson:  Self-Reliance. 

7.  "  I  thank  thee,  friend,  but,  though  I  be  hungry  and 
shivering  with  cold,  thou  wilt  not  give  me  food  nor  lodg- 
ing," replied  the  lioy,  in  the  quiet  tone  which  despair 
had  taught  him,  even  so  young.  The  traveller,  however, 
continued  to  entreat  hiui  tenderly,  and,  seeming  to 
acquire  some  degree  of  confidence,  he  at  length  arose  ; 
but  his  slender  limbs  tottered  with  weakness,  his  little 
head  grew  dizzy,  and  he  leaned  against  the  tree  of  death 
for  support.  —  Hawthorne  :  The  Gentle  Boy. 

Read  aloud  tlie  following  sentences,  from 
which  the  centre  punctuation  of  the  compound 
sentences  has  been  removed,  and  say  what 
mark  should  precede  but:  — 

1.  When  France  was  invaded  l\v  Charles  V.,  he  in- 
quired of  a  prisoner  how  many  days  Paris  might  be  dis- 
tant from  tlie  frontier.  "  Perhaps  twelve  Imt  they  icll!  he 
days  of  hattle."  Such  was  the  gallant  answer  which 
checked  the  arrogance  of  that  ambitious  prince.  —  Glhhon. 

2.  The  instinct  which  drives  men  to  travel,  is  at  bot- 
tom identical  with  that  which  fills  men  with  passionate 
desire  to  know  what  is  in  life.  Time  and  strength  are 
often  wasted  in  restless  change  from  place  to  place  but 
real  wandering,  however  aimless  in  mood,  is  always  edu- 
cation. To  know  one's  neighV)ors  and  to  be  on  good  terms 
with  the  community  in  which  one  lives  are  the  beginning 
of  sound  relations  to  the  world  at  large  but  one  never 


48      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

knows  his  village  in  any  real  sense  until  he  knows  the 
world. —  H.  W.  ]Mabie:  Bonks  uml  Culture. 

It  seems  fairly  clear  from  all  these  examples 
that  a  compound  sentence  in  which  hut  joins 
the  compounding  sentences  should  receive 
either  a  comma  or  a  semicolon  before  hut^ 
according  to  the  length  and  separateness  of 
the  compounding  parts.  It  seems  equally  clear 
that  a  connna  (not  a  semicolon)  is  often  needed 
between  two  predicates  joined  hy  but,  j^et  not 
unless  they  seem  like  distinct  sentences. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  39  :  Place  a  comma  or 
a  semicolon  betw^een  compounding  sentences  joined 
in  one  by  but,  and  often  a  comma  between  predicates 
so  joined. 

Exercise  40.  (Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  39. 

Exercise  41.  (Oral.')  Spell  and  define  the 
following  words  :  accident,  unmanageable,  col- 
lision, investigate,  perceive,  necessity,  restor- 
ative, remedy,  gradual,  recovery,  joyful. 

Hide  3  for  SpelHtu/.  —  Final  1/  preceded  by 
a  vowel  is  kept  l>efore  any  suffix.  Examples: 
joyful,  joyous,  boyish.  Exceptions:  laid,  said, 
paid. 


■  -v? 

THE  FICTITIOUS   PAIiAGRAPH  49 

Exercise  42.  (^Written.}  Write  an  account 
of  an  imaginai-y  accident,  using  most  of  the 
words  of  41.  In  this  story  try  to  follo^y  the 
law  of  probability  as  closely  as  possible.  Do 
not  write  whatever  crosses  your  nuiid,  but  ask 
yourself  what  Avould  probably  occur  if  a  certain 
thing  happened  to  start  with.  Revise  with 
reference  to  handwriting,  spelling,  the  length 
of  sentences,  the  use  of  and,  and  so,  and  but, 
and  the  punctuation  of  compound  sentences  or 
predicates. 

Exercise  43.  (Oral.')  How  to  use  and 
reasonably.  —  If  one  should  write,  ''  It  is  a 
beautiful  morning,  and  the  moon  is  said  to  be 
200,000  miles  from  the  earth,"  what  would  be 
wrong  with  the  sentence?  Both  assertions 
might  be  true  ;  why,  then,  is  the  sentence 
incorrect  ? 

Examine  the  following,  and  see  if  you  dis- 
cover anything  wrong  in  the  use  of  and:  — 

1.  He  was  a  quiet,  honest  young  man,  and  was  con- 
fined to  his  i-ooni  about  two  weeks,  suffering  intensely, 
but  unconiphxining. 

2.  Prince  Frederick  Leopold,  who  was  born  in  1865 
and  who  is  a  major-general  and  commander,  is  very  un- 
popular, lie  has  always  been  on  bad  terms  with  the 
emperor  and  is  very  wealthy. 

'i.   Few  women  writers  of  fiction  have  been  more  fortu- 


50      A    FIRST  MANUuiL    OF  COMPOSITION 

iiate  than  ]\Iiss  Charlotte  Mary  Yonge,  the  brilliant  English 
author.  She  is  the  only  daughter  of  the  late  W.  C.  Yonge 
of  Hants,  and  was  successful  from  her  very  first  attempt. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  43  :  Let  and  introduce 
nothing  except  that  which  should  be  added  closely. 

ExERCLSE  44.  QVritten.)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  44. 

Exercise  45.  {Written.')  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  new  words.  Then  reproduce  it,  using  : 
prevention,  due-bills,  silence,  lured,  magic, 
recesses,  larder,  tolerated,  wanton,  healing,  ail- 
ments, rheumatism.  To-morrow,  before  pro- 
ceeding with  tlie  next  exercise,  revise  your 
theme  with  reference  to  handwriting,  spelling, 
the  length  of  sentences,  the  use  of  cotd,  and  so, 
and  but,  and  the  punctuation  of  compound 
sentences  or  predicates. 

THE   CAMP   LIFE 

A  pleasant  life  it  was;  there  was  no  prevention  of 
debtor  or  creditoi',  no  due-bills  or  trouble  of  business ;  all 
had  put  affairs  by  for  a  certain  time,  and  day  by  day  the 
Lethean  silence  lured  us  deeper  into  its  magic  recesses. 
The  outside  world  was  but  a  dream.  No  visitor  intruded 
on  our  presence.  We  ate  a  deer  every  day,  and  the  veni- 
son was  such  as  no  king  ever  tasted,  and  our  lake  fur- 
nished trout  in  perfection.  The  larder  was  always  pro- 
vided ;  not  often  was  the  drive  without  its  deer,  and  if 


TEE  FICTITIOUS  PARAGRAPH  51 

by  chance  two  were  killed  in  one  day,  we  killed  none  the 
next,  for  we  tolerated  no  waste  or  wanton  killing,  and 
the  osprey,  the  eagle,  and  the  loon  had  in  us  friends. 
The  effect  of  this  life,  alike  on  the  physical  and  mental 
condition,  was  such  as  only  experience  can  estimate.  It 
was  wonderful  to  see  how  tlie  healing  of  the  mighty 
mother  cured  the  ailments  we  brought  with  us.  It  was 
nothing  new  to  me,  but  to  the  newcomers  it  was  like 
enchantment.  Agassiz  came  suffering  from  rheumatism 
and  overwork,  but  four  days  sufficed  to  restore  him  to  liis 
normal  condition.  —  W.  J.  Stillman  :  The  Philosophers' 
Camp,  in  Tlie  Old  Rome  and  the  Netc. 

Exercise  46.  (Oral.')  Spell  and  define  the 
following  words  :  leisure,  recreation,  vegetable, 
utensil,  essential,  requisite,  indispensable,  omis- 
sion, improvise,  resources,  possibility,  habit- 
able, merrily,  driest,  subduing,  disappoint, 
happier. 

Rule  4  for  SpeUhig.  —  Final  //  preceded  by 
a  consonant  is  changed  to  i  before  a  suffix  not 
beginning  with  i.  Examples:  merrily,  happier, 
driest,  babyish. 

ExEECLSE  47.  {Written.')  Write  a  probable 
account  of  an  imaginary  camping  trip,  using 
most  of  the  words  of  Exercise  4(3.  Revise 
it  with  reference  to  handwriting,  s[)elling, 
sentence-length,  punctuation  of  compound  sen- 
tences and  predicates,  and  the  use  of  and. 


52      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  48.  (Oral)  How  to  use  but  rea- 
sonably. Read  aloud  the  following  sentences, 
examine  each  carefully,  and  decide  as  to  which 
of  the  two  words  braced  is  the  better :  — 

1.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  not  long  ago  ex- 
pressed this  opinion  concerning  school  vacations.     He 

had  watched  boys  at  Rugby,  -|     " ,  >  had  always  found  that 

tliose  wlio  had  not  looked  at  a  sclioolbook  all  the  summer 
made  better  progress  than  those  who  had  been  obliged 
by  mistaken  and  ambitious  parents  to  "  keep  up  with 
their  studies"  during  the  long  vacation. —  The  Youth's 
Companion. 

2.  Dr.  John  Brown  tells  of  finding  a  dog  whose  leg 

was   broken,  J.       ,  ■  whicli  he  first  set,  and  then  bound 
( and  )  ' 

up.  The  dog  was  very  grateful,  ■]*][-  went  away  ex- 
pressively blinking  his  eye,  and  wagging  his  tail.  The 
very  next  month  he  came  back,  bringing  another  dog 
with  a  broken  leg. 

3.  [Georoe  Tinworthli  is  an  artisan, -;        ,  ;-  has    not 

•-         *  ■'  '  ^  and  \ 

cared  to  check  the  flow  of  his  invention  by  troubling  him- 
self with  what  is  called  culture  in  any  form.     He  can  read 

the  Bible,  -j  ,  [■  he  can  model  [clay]  like  some  old  crafts- 
man of  Nuremburg  or  Florence,  -]    '    i  [  that  is  enough 

for  him.  He  does  not  see  that  he  can  exhaust  the  great 
stories  and  scenes  of  Scripture  history  in  one  short  life, 

-^       T  r  bv  taking;  heed  he  thinks  that  he  can  improve  his 
(  and  j    -^  o  i 

1  The  use  of  brackets  indicates  that  the  enclosed  words 
are  supplied  by  tlie  present  editor. 


THE  FICTITIOUS  PAH  AGE  AP II  53 

own   touch   in  modelling   them,  and  his  knowledge  of 

their  meaning ;  -j  ^^^^  ,-  this  seems  to  him  quite  enough 

to  have  lived  for.  In  our  restless  age,  sick  with  unwhole- 
some ambition,  the  modest  attitude  of  tins  artist  seems 

remarkable  enough,  \  ;*||j  -  not  easily  to  be  overrated.— 

Edmund  Gosse. 

4.   The  truth  is,  that  we  see  much  less  than  is  com- 
monly supposed.     Not  every  impression  is  attended  to  that 

ismade  on  the  retina,  -  '^V,  -  unless  we  do  attend  we  can- 
not, properly  speaking,  be  said  to  see.  Walking  across 
to  college  one  day  I  was  startled  by  seeing  on  the  face  of 
a  clock  in  my  way  that  it  was  ten  minutes  to  twelve, 
wliereas  I  generally  passed  that  spot  about  twenty  min- 
utes to  twelve.     I  hurried  on,  fearing  to  be  late,  -  ^^^  j  - 

on  my  arrival  found  myself  in  very  good  time.  On  my 
way  back,  passing  the  clock  again,  I  looked  up  to  see  how 
much  it  was  fast.  It  marked  ten  minutes  to  eight.  It 
had  stopped  at  that  time.  When  I  passed  before  I  liad 
really  seen  only  the  minute  hand.     The  whole  dial  must 

have  been  on  my  retina,  •    '^Vi     I  had  looked  at,  or  at- 
■'  (  and  ) 

tended  to,  only  what  I  was  in  doubt  about,  taking  the 

hour  for  granted.  —  ^\'illiam  Mjxto:  Logic. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  48  :  Let  but  introduce 
a  real  and  immediate  contrast. 

Exercise  49.  (  Written.^  Revise  past  themes 
in  tlie  liglit  of  Exercise  49,  asking  yourself 
whether  yovi  luive  not  sometimes  used  hut 
when  and  was  the  word  needed. 


54      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  50.  (  Written.')  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using:  pairs,  essence,  freak,  mince,  color,  vege- 
tate, gist,  cackle,  jar,  fine.  Revise  3'our  tlieme 
with  reference  to  handwriting,  spelling,  sen- 
tence-length, punctuation  of  compound  sen- 
tences and  predicates,  and  the  use  of  a)id. 

WALKING    ALONE 

Now,  to  be  properly  enjoyed,  a  walking  tour  should 
be  gone  upon  alone.  If  you  go  in  a  company  or  even  in 
pairs,  it  is  no  longer  a  walking  tour  in  anything  but 
name ;  it  is  something  else  and  more  in  the  nature  of  a 
picnic.  A  walking  tour  sliould  he  gone  upon  alone,  be- 
cause freedom  is  of  the  essence ;  because  you  should  be 
able  to  stop  and  go  on,  and  follow  this  way  or  that,  as 
the  freak  takes  you ;  and  because  you  must  have  your 
own  pace,  and  neither  trot  alongside  a  champion  walker 
nor  mince  in  time  with  a  girl.  And  then  you  must  be 
open  to  all  impressions  and  let  your  thoughts  take  color 
from  what  you  see.  You  should  be  as  a  pipe  for  any  wind 
to  play  upon.  "  I  cannot  see  the  wit,"  says  Hazlitt,  "  of 
walking  and  talking  at  the  same  time.  Wlien  I  am  in 
tlie  country  I  wish  to  vegetate  like  the  country,"  —  which 
is  the  gist  of  all  that  can  be  said  upon  the  matter.  There 
should  be  no  cackle  of  voices  at  your  elbow,  to  jar  on  tlie 
meditative  silence  of  the  morning.  And  so  long  as  a  man 
is  reasoning  he  cannot  surrender  himself  to  that  fine  in- 
toxication that  comes  of  much  motion  in  the  open  air, 
that  begins  in  a  sort  of  dazzle  and  sluggishness  of  the 
brain,  and  ends  in  a  peace  that  passes  comprehension. — 
K.  L.  Stevenson  :    Viryinihus  Puerisque. 


THE  FICTITIOUS  PARAGRAPH  55 

Exercise  51.  {Oral.')  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words :  pedestrian,  leisure,  luggage, 
indispensable,  requisite,  temperature,  exhaus- 
tion, schedule,  tyrannize,  perplexity,  disappoint, 
omission,  random,  diversion.  Review  the  rules 
of  spelling  in  Exercises  31,  36,  41,  16. 

Exercise  52.  ( Written.)  Write  a  probable 
account  of  an  imaginary  walking  tour,  mak- 
ing use  of  most  of  the  words  of  Exercise  51. 
Cxive  your  theme  an  appropriate  title.  Revise 
it  with  reference  to  handwriting,  spelling,  sen- 
tence-length, punctuation  of  compound  sen- 
tences, and  the  use  of  and  and  bnt. 

Exercise  53.  (  Oral.)  How  to  vary  the  mo- 
notonous   use    of    the    causal    conjunction    as.  — 

Note  the  painful  monotony  of  the  conjunction 

as  in  the  following  selection  :  — 

Von  Moltke,  the  famous  German  field  marshal,  was 
called  "the  silent,"  as  he  rarely  took  part  in  a  conversa- 
tion. He  might  also  have  been  called  "the  modest,"  as 
he  shunned  all  public  dis])lay.  Ilis  old  regiment  erected 
new  barracks  at  Fi'ankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  as  Von 
Moltke  was  much  their  most  distinguished  officer,  they 
wished  him  to  be  present  at  the  opening  of  the  new 
building.  lie  agreed  to  come,  but  begged  that  he 
might  not  in  any  way  be  distinguished  above  the  other 
officers.  The  regiment  agreed,  but  as  A"on  ^Moltke  was 
to  come  by  train,  they  thought  there  could  be  no  harm 
in  sending  a  splendid  carriage  for  him.     When  the  great 


5(3      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

general  arrived  he  was  invited  to  the  rich  vehicle,  but  as 
he  just  then  saw  a  modest  cab  passing,  A"on  Moltke  beck- 
oned to  its  driver,  and  quietly  I'ode  away  in  it. 

In  the  following  blanks  insert  as,  for,  be- 
cause, since,  in  vieiv  of  tlie  fact  that,  or  for 
the  reason  that,  according  to  your  best  jndg- 
ment  :  — 

1.  They     [earthworms]     are    cannibals, the    two 

halves  of  a  dead  worm  were  dragged  into  the  burrows, 
and  gnawed.  —  Darwin:  Vegetable  Mould  and  Earth- 
ivorms. 

2.  Worms  are  destitute  of  eyes,  and  at  first  I  thought 

tliey  wei'e  quite  insensible  to  light ; those  kept  in 

confinement  were  repeatedly  observed  by  the  aid  of  a 
candle,  and  others  out  of  doors  by  the  aid  of  a  lantern, 
yet  they  were  I'arely  alarmed,  although  extremely  timid 
animals.  —  IhidA 

'S.    They  appeared  distressed  by  the  light-,  but  T  doubt 

whether  this  was  really  the  case, on  two  occasion.s, 

after  withdrawing  slowly,  they  remained  for  a  long  time 
with  their  anterior  extremities  protruding  a  little  from 
the  mouths  of  their  burrows,  in  which  position  they  wei'e 
ready  for  instant  and  complete  withdrawal.  —  Ibid. 

4.  Sometimes,  however,  they  behaved  very  differently, 

-as  soon  as  the  light  fell  on  them  they  withdrew  into 

their  burrows  with  almost  instantaneous  rapidity. —  Ibid. 

5.  They  were  quite  indifferent  to  my  breath,  as  long 

as  I  breathed  on  them  very  gently.     This  was  tried, 

it  appeared  possible  tliat  tliey  miglit  thus  be  Avarned  of 
the  approach  of  an  enemy. —  Ibid. 

1  The  abbreviation  Ihid.  stands  for  the  Latin  word  ibidem, 
"  in  the  same  phxce."     How  does  it  apply  here  ? 


THE  FICTITIOUS  PARAGRAPH  57 

6.  When  a  stone  of  large  size  and  irregular  shape  is 
left  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  it  rests,  of  course,  on 
the  more  protuberant  parts ;  but  worms  soon  fill  up  with 
their  castings  all  tlie  hollow  spaces  on  the  lower  side ; 

as  Ilensen  remarks,  they  like  the  shelter  of  stones. — 

IMd. 

7.  A  few  years  ago  a  Chinese  ^  professor  of  music  was 
in  London,  and  after  he  had  attentively  listened  to  our  very 
best  concerts,  and  had  heard  the  most  delightf  id  music  in 
Europe,  his  frank  opinion  was  thus  expressed :  "  Your 
music  is  carefully  performed,  and  with  great  execution, 

and  it  is  interesting  to  hear.     But it  appears  to  be  a 

mere  jingle  of  sounds,  I  fail  altogether  to  find  in  it  any 
rhythm,  any  tlienie,  or  thread  of  design." 

8.   that   he  was   to   read    it  in  public,  Dickens, 

though  extraordinarily  busy,  rehearsed  "  Doctor  Mari- 
gold "  to  himself  considerably  over  two  hundred  times 
in  three  months. 

9.   he,  himself,  believed  more  in  the  training  of 

experience  than  in  tiiat  of  books,  Father  Taylor,  the 
seaman's  preacher,  said  of  the  famous  Dr.  Channing: 
"Channing  has  splendid  talents  :  what  a  pity  he  has  not 
been  educated ! " 

Read  the  following  passage,  and  note  that 
the  second  sentence  has  no  introductory  con- 
junction, because  the  as  relation  is  readily  in- 
ferred without  the  word  itself. 

How  they  [earthworms]  reach  such  isolated  islands 
is  at  present  quite  uidcnown.  They  are  easily  killed  by 
salt  water,  and  it  does  not  appear  probable  that  young 

1  Are  you  positive  that  you  are  in  tlie  lialtit  of  writing 
this  word  with  a  capital  ? 


58      A   FIB  ST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

worms  or  their  egg  capsules  could  be  carried  in  earth 
adhering  to  the  feet  or  beaks  of  land  birds.  Moreover, 
Kerguelen  Land  is  not  now  inhabited  by  any  land  bird.  — 
Darwin:    Veget(tble  jMould  and  Earthironns. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  53  :  Instead  of  as, 
sometimes  use  for,  because,  since,  etc.  ;  and  -wrhen 
the  causal  relation  is  obvious,  omit  the  conjunction. 

Exercise  5-1:.  (  Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  53. 

Exercise  55.  (Written^)  After  reading  the 
following  paragraph,  ask  the  meaning  of  any 
unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it,  using : 
speed,  easy,  placidity,  borne,  flying,  alight, 
unfrequented,  shading,  golden.  Revise  your 
theme  with  reference  to  handwriting,  spelling, 
sentence-length,  punctuation  of  compound  sen- 
tences, and  the  use  of  and  and  hut. 

THE   CHIEF   CHARjNI    OF    RAILWAY   TRAVEL 

Herein,  I  think,  lies  the  chief  attraction  of  railway 
travel.  The  speed  is  so  easy,  and  the  train  disturbs  so 
little  the  scenes  through  which  it  takes  us,  that  our  heart 
becomes  full  of  the  placidity  and  stillness  of  the  country ; 
and  while  the  body  is  boiuie  forward  in  the  flying  chain 
of  carriages,  the  thoughts  alight,  as  the  humor  moves 
them,  at  unfrequented  stations ;  they  make  haste  up  the 
poplar  alley  that  leads  toward  the  town  ;  they  are  left 
behind  with  the  signal  man  as,  shading  his  eyes  with  his 
hand,  he  watches  the  long  train  sweep  away  into  the 
golden  distance.  — 11.  L.  Stevenson:  Virginibus  Pu- 
erisque. 


THE  FICTITIOUS   PARAGRAPH  59 

Exercise  56.  (OraL')  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words  :  luggage,  transferable,  indis- 
pensable, essential,  requisite,  schedule,  tran- 
quillity, perplexity,  tyrannize,  temperature, 
incessant,  unintelligible,  reference,  referring, 
succession,  collision,  coincidence,  souvenir. 

Rule  5  for  Spellinji.  —  Before  any  suffix,  a 
word  whose  accent  remains  on  the  last  syllable 
doubles  a  final  consonant.  U.ra tuples:  forget, 
forgetting  ;  refer,  referring.  Exception :  tran- 
quillity, transferable. 

Exercise  57,  (Written.)  Invent  a  probable 
account  of  a  railway  journey,  using  a  part  of 
the  words  given  in  Exercise  56.  Give  your 
story  an  appropriate  title.  Revise  with  refer- 
ence to  handwriting,  spelling,  sentence-length, 
punctuation  of  compound  sentences  and  j^redi- 
cates,  and  the  use  of  a7id,  but,  and  as. 

Exercise  58.  (Oral.)  Read  aloud  your  best 
recent  theme  and  receive  criticisms  from  the 
class. 

Exercise  50.  (Oral.)  To  reach  a  definition  of 
a  *•'  complex  sentence."*  —  Thus  far  our  studies  in 
sentence-structure   have   been    confined  to  the 


60      A   FIRST  MAX  UAL   (;F  COMPOSITION 

simple  and  the  compound.  We  now  have  to 
face  the  complex  sentence,  which  is  the  most 
valuable  of  all  kinds.  Let  ns  begin  with  a 
simple  sentence  and  remind  ourselves  of  how 
the  complex  develops  from  the  simple. 

Whether  we  make  a  statement  or  ask  a  ques- 
tion, there  is  always  a  subject  of  our  remark. 
The  sul)iect  is  that  about  which  the  statement 
is  made  or  the  question  asked.  It  may  be 
expressed  in  a  word  or  two,  or  again  it  may 
require  a  great  many  words.  Let  us  suppose 
tlie  subject  of  one's  remark  to  be  "Roosevelt." 
Stated  so  simply  and  briefly,  this  may  be  called 
the  simple  subject.  In  our  daily  conversation 
we  are  often  able  to  name  in  one  word  the  sub- 
ject of  a  sentence,  because  the  hearer  will  know 
our  meaning.  At  home,  a  word  like  "  Father  " 
needs  no  explanation.  In  writing,  unless  one 
is  addressing  an  intimate  friend,  one  often  needs 
many  words  to  explain  the  simple  subject. 
Take  "■  Ivoosevelt,"  for  instance.  This  requires 
at  least  the  word  "  Colonel  "  before  it  in  order 
to  be  clear  to  most  Americans.  To  be  plain 
to  a  British  boy,  it  miglit  need  the  explana- 
tion, "-an  officer  of  the  Rough  Riders  in  Cuba." 
These  words,  "  an  officer  of  the  Rough  Riders 
in  Cuba,"  are  a  phrase  ;  a  phrase  is  a  series  of 


THE  FICTITIOUS  PARAGEAPII  61 

words  making  sense,  but  no  statement.  This 
one  is  an  adjective  phrase,  modifying  "Roose- 
velt." Since  it  relates  to  "  Roosevelt,"  we  may, 
if  we  choose,  change  it  to  a  relative  clause  be- 
p-inning-  with  "who";  —  a  relative  clause  is  an 
explanatory  statement  beginning  with  a  relative 
pronoun  like  who  or  that,  or  a  relative  adverb 
like  u'here  or  ivhen.^  Then^  our  sul)ject  as 
modified  becomes,  "Colonel  Roosevelt,  who 
was  an  officer  of  the  Rough  Riders  in  Cuba." 
Note  that  the  relative  clause,  because  it  relates 
to  the  subject  and  modifies  it  like  an  adjective, 
is  a  dependent  clause. 

Thus  far  we  have  merely  given  a  complete 
wording  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence.  We 
have  explained  the  simple  sul)ject  first  by  an 
adjective,  then  by  a  phrase,  then  by  a  clause, 
but  we  have  not  yet  made  our  principal  state- 
ment al)Out  it.  Suppose  Ave  say,  "  Colonel 
Roosevelt,  who  was  an  officer  of  the  Rough 
Riders  in  Cuba,  advised  his  men."  But  this 
sounds  incomplete.  The  question  at  once 
arises,  What  did  he  advise  ?  What  advice  did 
he  give  to  liis  men  ?  For  "  men  "  is  merely  the 
indirect    object    of    the    verb    "advised."     We 

1  The  relative  adverbs  loherc  and  token  may  also  be  called 
adverbial  conjuiiclious. 


02      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

must  go  on  to  complete  the  statement  by  add- 
ing a  direct  object  in  the  shape  of  a  clause  : 
"  that  they  should  not  pose  as  heroes  when  they 
got  home."  The  simple  predicate  of  our  sen- 
tence is  "advised."  The  complete  or  modi- 
fied predicate  is  :  "  advised  his  men  that  they 
should  not  pose  as  heroes  when  they  got  home." 
It  is  clear  that  the  object  clause  beginning 
with  the  conjunction  ''  that  "  is  dependent  on 
the  verb  "advised."  It  is  equally  clear  that 
the  clause  "  when  they  got  home  "  is  dependent 
on  the  verb  "  should  not  pose,"  for  it  expresses 
merely  the  time  and  the  place  when  and  where 
they  "should  not  pose."  We  have  now  found 
three  kinds  of  dependent  clauses  :  («)  a  rela- 
tive clause,  which  modifies  a  noun  like  an  ad- 
jective ;  (/>)  an  object  clause  ;  (c)  a  relative 
clause  of  time  and  place,  acting  as  an  adverb. 

After  reading  the  following  sentences  aloud 
point  out  the  dependent  clauses,  and  say 
whether  their  force  is  that  of  adjective,  adverb, 
subject,  or  oljject :  — 

1.  To  be  respected  is  better  than  to  be  loved. 

2.  "  Books,"  said  Tliorean,  "  must  be  read  as  deliber- 
ately as  they  were  written." 

3.  Though  I  speak  with  tlie  tongues  of  men  and  of 
angels,  and  have  not  charity,  I  am  become  as  sounding 
brass,  or  a  tinkling  cymbal. 


THE  FICTITIOUS  PAIiAGRAPII  63 

4.  Lincoln  was  so  powerful  that,  taking  an  axe  by  the 
helve  with  his  thumb  and  first  finger,  he  could  extend  it 
at  arm's  length. 

5.  Drive  a  nail  home  and  clinch  it  so  faithfully  that 
you  can  wake  up  in  the  night  and  think  of  your  work 
with  satisfaction. —  Tiiokp:au  :    Walden. 

6.  That  the  greatest  men  never  lose  freshness  of  feel- 
ing, zest  for  work,  joy  in  life,  is  a  fact  full  of  meaning, 
says  ]Mr.  JSIabie,  the  essayist. 

7.  Lincoln  never  went  to  school  before  he  was  a  mature 
boy,  and  after  he  had  attended  school  only  six  months  he 
was  obliged  by  poverty  to  leave  once  for  all. 

8.  Judge  Hughes,  the  author  of  Tom  Brown,  told  Mr. 
Blaikie,  who  has  written  much  on  athletics,  that,  when 
in  Parliament,  he  could  work  through  a  whole  week  to- 
gether on  but  four  hours  of  sleep  a  night,  provided  lie 
could  have  all  the  sleep  he  wanted  the  next  week. 

9.  It  was  said  that  Daniel  Webster  walked  as  if  he  felt 
himself  a  king.  It  is  certainly  pleasanter  to  think  of 
him  as  a  king  than  to  remember  the  picture  of  him  as 
drawn  by  the  great  Scottish  writer,  Carlyle.  "  Webster 
looked,"  said  Carlyle,  "like  a  steam-engine  in  breeches." 

10.  It  is  said  that,  unless  persistent  efforts  are  made 
to  revive  hiin,  the  person  who  is  struck  by  lightning  is 
very  likely  to  die,  and  that  in  many  cases  he  is  not  likely 
to  die  unless  he  is  neglected.  Colonel,  afterward  Presi- 
dent, Hayes  saved  the  lives  of  live  men  who  were  ren- 
dered unconscious  by  a  single  bolt.  He  had  them  treated 
as  if  they  were  drowning  men,  and  worked  over  one  of 
them  for  ninety  minutes. 

11.  If  you  are  a  sweet  singer,  do  not  make  music  the 
staple  of  your  conversation.  If  you  can  make  a  big  score 
at  cricket,  don't  say  too  much  about  that  last  match  in 
which  you  played.  Make  no  parade  of  your  skill ;  it  will 
be  discovered  .sooner  or  later,  and  you  will  win  all  the 


64      A   FIRST  3IANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

more  commendation  and  respect  if  you  leave  others  to 
find  it  out.  —  W.  T.  S.  Hewett  :  Notes  for  Boi/s. 

12.  An  eminent  senator  recently  said  in  The  Youth's 
Companion  that  the  life  and  character  of  a  country  are 
determined  in  a  large  degree  by  the  sports  of  the  boys. 
He  quoted  the  traditional  remark  of  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington that  the  victory  of  Waterloo  was  won  on  the 
playing  fields  at  Eton  College. 

13.  At  the  beginning  of  1899,  it  was  not  a  professional 
atldete  who  had  made  the  longest  running  broad  jump 
on  record.  It  was  an  Irish  college  professor,  Mr.  New- 
bern,  "  a  young  man  who  leads  a  very  systematic  life, 
works  hai'der  than  any  of  his  students,  and  neither 
smokes  nor  drinks." 

14.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  best  writers  to  express  them- 
selves very  clearly,  in  order  that  no  reader  may  possibly 
m/.s'understand  them.  A  young  writer  who  has  the  de- 
termination never  to  be  misunderstood  in  the  slightest 
degree  will  improve  so  rapidly  that,  as  a  result,  his  friends 
will  be  happily  surprised.  But  in  order  that  he  may  suc- 
ceed he  has  to  learn  the  force  of  the  Irish  patriot  Cur- 
ran's  remark,  "  Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety." 

15.  I  remember  how,  when  i  a  child,  I  used  to  get  irri- 
tated when  anybody  talked  to  me  in  a  way  -  I  could  not 
understand.  .  .  .  AVhen  I  got  on  such  a  hunt  after  an  idea, 
I  could  not  sleep  until  I  had  caught  it ;  and  when  I  thought  ^ 

1  In  this  adverbial  clause  the  verb  "I  was"  is  omitted. 
When  a  clause  is  perfect  but  for  the  omission  of  the  verb, 
we  say  there  is  ellipsis  of  the  verb,  and  call  tlie  clause 
elliptical. 

2  Here  "which"  is  omitted,  and  the  clause  "I  could  not 
understand"  may  be  called  an  elliptical  relative  clause. 

3 Here  the  dependent  conjunction  "that"  is  omitted  and 
the  clause  "I  had  got  it"  maybe  called  an  elliptical  object 
clause. 


THE  FICTITIOUS  PARAGRAPH  65 

I  had  got  it,  I  was  not  satisfied  until  I  had  repeated  it 
over  and  over,  until  I  had  put  it  in  language  plain  enough, 
as  I  thought,  for  any  boy  ^  I  knew  to  comprehend. — 
Abraham  Lincoln.'^ 

16.  A  long-distance  runner  must  have  strong  feet  and 
shins  and  thighs,  because  these  parts  must  bear  the  mus- 
cular strain.  But,  since  muscles  are  fed  by  fresh  blood, 
he  must  have  a  strong  heart  to  pump  blood  to  the  work- 
ing muscles.  Yet  a  man  of  good  muscles  and  strong 
heart  may  fail,  whereas  the  man  who  adds  big  lungs  to 
the  advantages  abov^e  named  will  surely  win,  for  his 
lungs  will  constantly  freshen  the  blood  by  bringing  it 
new  oxygen. 

17.  When  General  Grant  was  abi'oad  and  was  visiting 
Scotland,  he  saw  a  game  of  golf.  In  order  to  show  his 
guest  the  manner  of  the  game  and  at  the  same  time  to  do 
credit  to  himself,  the  host  began  the  playing.  Having 
set  the  ball  in  place  and  waggled  the  club  solemnly,  he 
gave  a  heavy  blow.  Though  there  was  a  thud  and  a  fly- 
ing of  turf,  the  little  ball  still  sat  on  the  "tee."  ^Making 
ready  and  trying  desperately  once  more,  the  golfer  suc- 
ceeded no  better.  General  Grant  thereupon  gently  re- 
marked that  there  seemed  to  be  a  fair  amount  of  exercise 
in  tlie  game,  Inifc  that  he  failed  to  see  the  use  of  the  ball. 

ly.  "  When  the  geography  and  English  and  history 
and  arithmetic  make  cross-references  to  one  another,  you 
get  an  interesting  set  of  processes  all  along  the  line." 
These  are  the  words  of  Professor  William  James,  who 
has  studied  the  human  mind  ever  since  he  began  to  study 
anything.  He  means  that  what  a  boy  learns  in  one  class 
ought  to  make  his  work  in  another  class  more  interest- 

1  What  kind  of  clause  is  "  I  knew  "  ? 

2  With  two  unimportant  changes,  these  sentences  are  from 
Mr.  Gulliver's  interview  with  Lincoln,     See  page  17. 


66      A   FIRST  MAX  UAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

ing.  When,  in  the  English  class,  one  is  studying  tlie 
strong  and  beautiful  language  of  Lincoln's  Gettysburg 
address,  one  is  helped  by  remembering  the  history  of  our 
civil  war.  The  stern  training  given  Lincoln  by  the 
events  of  those  and  earlier  days  was  what  joined  with 
his  own  great  love  of  men  to  make  the  style  of  the  Get- 
tysburg address  supremely  noble. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  59  :  A  complex  sentence 
is  one  in  -which  statements  are  used  to  modify  the 
subject  or  the  predicate,  and  so  become  dependent 
statements. 

Exercise  60.  (^Written.^  To  classify  conjunc- 
tions that  begin  dependent  statements.  — Having 

now  satisfied  your  mind  as  to  which  statements 
in  the  preceding  sentences  (Exercise  59)  are 
dependent,  take  your  pack  of  themes  and  make 
eight  lists  of  words  that  begin  dependent 
clauses  wliich  you  yourself  have  written.  In 
the  first  list  put  the  relative  pronouns  ;  in  the 
second,  adverhs  or  dependent  conjunctions 
expressing  tiitie ;  in  the  third,  adverbs  or 
dependent  conjunctions  expressing  place ;  in 
the  fourth,  dependent  conjunctions  express- 
ing cause ;  in  the  fifth,  dependent  conjunc- 
tions (like  if)  expressing  condition;  in  the 
sixth,  dependent  conjunctions  expressing  a 
puryose ;  in  the  seventh,  dependent  conjunc- 
tions expressing  a  result;  in  the  eighth,  de- 
pendent conjunctions  expressing  comparison. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE  DESCRIPTIVE   PARAGRAPH,    A   SERIES   OF 
IMAGES 

Exercise  61.  (^Oral.^  Define  and  spell  the 
adjectives  which  follow,  descriptive  of  the 
features  named:  Eyes. — Laughing,  startled, 
heavy-lidded,  vacant,  noticeable,  protruding, 
expressive,  dreamy,  speaking.  Nose. — Aqui- 
line, lloman,  beak-like,  shapely,  snub,  sharp, 
insignificant.  Hair.  —  Grizzled,  frowsy,  shaggy, 
glossy,  dishevelled,  unkempt,  tumbled.  Man- 
ner. —  Alert,  jaunty,  affable,  sprightly,  haughty, 
fascinating,  pretentious,  modest,  diffident,  re- 
served, ostentatious,  demure,  animated.  Fig- 
ure. —  Gaunt,  lank,  vigorous,  robust,  grotesque, 
massive,  insignificant,  tliick-set,  portly,  sturdy, 
stalwart,  erect,  decrepit,  fragile.  Expression. 
—  Rueful,  crafty,  frank,  wistful,  stolid,  keen, 
startled. 

Review  the  rules  of  spelling  in  Exercises  31, 
36,  41,  46,  56. 

07 


68      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  62.  {W)'itten.~)  Describe  some 
actual  person  whom  you  have  seen.  Be  as 
faithful  to  the  facts  as  possible.  Draw  upon 
the  vocabulary  of  Exercise  61  in  so  far  as  you 
find  it  useful.  Do  not  attempt  to  tell  about 
the  character  of  the  person  ;  describe  appear- 
ance and  manner,  and  allow  the  reader  to 
make  his  own  inference  concerning  character  ; 
description  is  concerned  primarily  with  the 
actual  look  of  things.  Give  your  theme  an 
appropriate  title.  Revise  with  reference  to 
handwriting,  spelling,  sentence-length,  punc- 
tuation of  compound  sentences  and  predicates, 
and  the  use  of  and,  hut,  and  as. 

Exercise  63.  (Oral.)  How  not  to  punctuate 
a  modifying  clause.  —  We  learned  in  Exercise 
12  that  a  sentence  is  "a  related  group  of  words 
containing  a  subject  and  a  predicate  with  their 
modifiers,  and  expressing  a  complete  thought." 
We  learned  in  Exercise  59  that  "modifiers" 
may  mean  adjectives,  adverbs,  adjective  phrases 
or  adverbial  phrases,  and  adjective  statements 
or  adverbial  statements.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  in  the  complex  sentence  there  is  no  "com- 
plete thought "  until  the  modifying  statements, 
if  there  are  to  be  any  such,  are  ex})ressed.    Very 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  69 

often  the  modifier  is  a  clause  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence,  thus  :  "  There  is  no  necessity  of  prais- 
ing our  friend,  if  he  always  attends  to  that 
matter  himself."  The  first  eight  words  here 
seem  to  make  a  complete  thouglit ;  but  it  is  not 
the  writer's  complete  thought,  and  so  is  not  a 
sentence  as  defined  above. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  nothing  could  be 
plainer  than 'that  a  modifying  clause  is  only  a 
part  of  a  sentence,  and  should  never  be  punc- 
tuated as  a  whole  sentence.  Yet  one  some- 
times thinks  that  he  has  ended  liis  sentence 
and  proceeds  to  place  a  period,  when  really  he 
has  not  finished ;  thus :  "  1  have  been  experi- 
menting lately  in  electricity,  with  very  great 
pleasure.  In  order  to  fit  myself  for  more 
serious  study  of  the  subject." 

A  much  commoner  mistake,  however,  is  to 
forget  that  the  semicolon  sliould  seldom  be  used 
save  to  end  a  complete  statement.  The  semi- 
colon joins  compounding  sentences  together  in 
a  compound  sentence.  We  may  call  the  semi- 
colon a  little  period.  Read  aloud  the  follow- 
ing passages,  and  point  out  the  semicolons 
that,  incorrectly,  are  permitted  to  introduce 
modifying  clauses.  The  selections  are  all  from 
Mr.  W.  G.  Blaikie's  interesting  and  valuable, 


70      -4   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

but   carelessly  punctuated   book,  JIow   to    Get 
Strong. 

American  women  are  not  good  walkers.  And  horse- 
car  and  trolley ;  cable  and  elevated  roads  help  to  keep 
them  so. 

A  boy  cannot  get  from  his  father  more  stamina  than 
the  latter  has,  however  favored  the  mother  may  have 
been;  so,  if  he  has  no  work  which  bnilds  him  up;  his 
father's  defects  will  likely  show  in  him. 

Day-laborers,  whose  tools  ai'e  spade, 'pick,  and  bar, 
take  poor  care  of  their  skin ;  are  exposed  to  dust  and 
dirt ;  are  coarsely  shod ;  and  are  apt  to  have  bad  feet. 
As  they  eat  and  sleep  well ;  they  give  their  bodies  no 
thought;  and  so  often,  like  their  teeth,  they  decay  before 
their  time ;  and  cut  down  their  usefulness  and  their  days. 

Let  him  who  thinks  that  the  average  American  boy 
of  the  same  age  would  have  fared  as  well,  go  down  to  the 
public  bath-house;  and  look  at  a  hundred  or  two  of  them 
as  they  tumble  al)out  in  the  water.  He  will  see  more  big 
heads  and  slim  necks;  more  poor  legs  and  skinny  arms; 
and  lanky,  half-built  bodies  than  he  would  have  thought 
the  town  could  produce. 

But  will  not  this  physical  training  dull  the  mind 
for  its  work?  Did  it  dull  the  mind  of  Miss  Fawcett, 
daughter  of  the  late  Professor  Fawcett,  at  one  time 
England's  blind  Postmaster-General ;  who  won  a  Senior 
Wranglership  ^  by  four  hundred  points  over  the  best  man 
in   Cambridge   University?      Yet  who  studied  only  six 

1  A  Senior  Wranglership  is  the  highest  honor  given  in  a 
British  university.  Miss  Fawcett  won  this  honor  at  Cam- 
bridge, especially  for  her  brilliant  work  in  mathematics  ; 
but,  not  being  a  man,  she  could  not  receive  the  honor,  and 
was  merely  marked  "higher  than  the  senior  wranglei*." 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGUAPH  71 

lionrs  a  day  !  but  spent  from  two  to  three  hours  every  day 
at  tennis,  and  shinny  played  at  a  very  lively  pace  at  that ! 

Cross  to  Germany ;  go  to  the  schools  where  boys  and 
their  masters  together,  in  vacation-days,  sometimes  walk 
two  or  three  hundred  miles,  or  even  farther;  .  .  .  and 
try  the  tape-measure  there.  Is  there  any  question  what 
the  result  would  be?  AVhen  the  sweeping  work  the  Ger- 
mans made  of  it  in  their  war  with  France  is  called  to 
mind ;  does  it  not  look  as  if  there  w^is  ground  for  the 
saying  that  it  was  the  superior  physique  of  the  Germans 
which  did  the  business? 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  63  :  Beware  of  punctu- 
ating a  modifying  clause  as  a  sentence. 

Exercise  64.  (^Written?)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  63. 

Exercise  65.  (Written.')  The  following  par- 
agraph is  a  character-sketch ;  that  is  to  say,  it 
both  describes  the  appearance  of  the  person  and 
analyzes  his  character.  After  hearing  it  read, 
reproduce  it  as  accurately  as  possible,  using 
the  following  words :  adapted,  serviceable, 
firmly,  serious,  grave,  becoming,  acute,  Avell- 
knit,  hardy,  skilful,  accurately,  fitness,  estimate, 
finer,  uniforndy.     Revise  as  in  Exercise  62. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   THOREAU 

Mr.  Thoreau  was  equipped  witli  a  most  adapted  and 
serviceable  body.  He  was  of  short  stature,  firmly  built, 
of  light  complexion,  witli  strong,  serious  bine  eyes,  and  a 
grave  aspect,  —  his  face  covered  in  the  late  years  with 


72      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

a  becoming  beard.  flis  senses  were  acute,  his  frame 
well-knit  and  hardy,  his  hands  strong  and  skilful  in  the 
use  of  tools.  And  there  was  a  wonderful  fitness  of  body 
and  mind.  He  could  pace  sixteen  rods  more  accurately 
than  another  man  could  measure  them  with  rod  and 
chain.  He  could  find  his  path  in  the  woods  at  night,  he 
said,  better  by  his  feet  than  his  eyes.  He  could  estimate 
the  measure  of  a  tree  very  well  by  his  eye ;  he  could  esti- 
mate the  weight  of  a  calf  or  a  pig,  like  a  dealer.  From 
a  box  containing  a  bushel  or  more  of  loose  pencils,  he 
could  take  up  with  his  hands  fast  enough  just  a  dozen 
pencils  at  every  grasp.  He  was  a  good  swimmer,  runner, 
skater,  boatman,  and  would  probably  outwalk  most 
countrymen  in  a  day's  journey.  And  the  relation  of 
body  to  mind  was  still  finer  than  we  have  indicated. 
He  said  he  wanted  every  stride  his  legs  made.  The 
length  of  his  walk  uniformly  made  the  length  of  liis 
writing.  If  shut  up  in  the  house,  he  did  not  write  at  all. 
—  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Exercise  66.  {Oral.}  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words :  unscrnpnlous,  merciless, 
changeable,  deceitful,  hypocritical,  vicious,  un- 
manageable, mischievous,  boisterous,  inefficient, 
indecision,  discourteous,  lack  of  courtesy,  churl- 
ish, deign,  irritable,  repulsive,  repellent,  courts 
publicity,  trivial,  frivolous,  pretentious,  languid, 
poor  judgment,  suspicious,  deplorable,  intolera- 
ble, inhospitable,  contemptible. 

Mule  6  for  Spelling. — A  word  whose  accent 
recedes  from  the  last  syllable  when  a  suiHx  is 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  73 

added  does  not  double  a  final  consonant.     Ex- 
amples:—  prefer,  preference;  refer,  reference. 

Exercise  67.  (Written.')  Write  a  character- 
sketcli  of  some  actual  unpleasant  person,  keep- 
ing strictly  to  the  truth.  Use  any  of  the  words 
in  Exercise  GQ  that  seem  useful.  Do  as  you 
please  about  describing  the  person's  appear- 
ance. 

Exercise  68.  (^Oral.)  How  to  avoid  inter- 
rupting the  stream  of  thought.  —  The  comma  is 
the  most  used  of  all  the  marks  of  punctuation, 
and  the  most  useful.  Yet  it  is  less  often  em- 
ployed than  twenty  years  ago,  the  tendency  of 
our  times  being  to  insert  as  few  marks  as  pos- 
sible. Careless  writers,  however,  do  not  appre- 
ciate the  fact  that  the  comma  interrupts  the 
stream  of  thought,  and  that  interruption  is 
often  quite  needless.  There  are  people  who 
write  in  little  gasps,  so  to  speak.  Every  time 
they  pause  for  a  thought  they  let  the  pen  rest 
on  the  page,  where  it  leaves  an  interrupting 
comma.      Thus  :  — 

Charles  Dai-wiu,  perhaps  the  greatest  master,  of  natural 
laws,  in  our  century,  was  a  man,  of  wonderful  patience. 
He  determined  to  study,  the  action  of  earthworms,  on 
the  ground,  and  he  studied  it,  for  more  than  forty  years. 


74      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

In  1842  he  spread  broken  chalk,  over  a  field,  to  see,  what 
the  worms,  would  do  with  it.  He  waited,  till  1871,  that 
is,  twenty-nine  years  before,  he  dug  a  trench  to  find  out, 

tlie  results. 

Or  thus  :  — 

It  is  a  very  simple  and  practical  exposition  of  the 
principles  of  English  Grammar,  with  nothing  in  it,  either 
superiluous  or  pedantic. 

Or  thus  :  — 

One  must  not  judge  of  Burns's  genius,  by  the  broken 
fragments  of  his  poetry. 

Is  any  comma  needed  in  either  of  the  follow- 
ing passages?  Is  the  stream  of  thought  per- 
fectly clear  ? 

It  would  be  a  poor  compliment  to  a  dead  poet  to  fancy 
him  leaning  out  of  the  sky  and  snufiing  up  the  impure 
breath  of  earthly  praise.  —  Hawthorne  :  Our  Old  Home. 
Mr.  Gladstone  remarked  twenty-five  years  ago  that 
during  the  present  century  more  wealth  had  been  pro- 
duced than  in  the  eighteen  hundred  preceding  years  of 
the  Christian  era.  Another  authority  adds  that  we  are 
uncomfortable  because  we  have  grown  in  wealth -faster 
than  in  wisdom. 

To  appreciate  the  full  value  of  the  comma 
we  must  look  upon  it  as  a  sort  of  danger  signal, 
which  tells  the  reader  to  check  his  train  of 
thought  a  second  for  fear  of  a  misunderstand- 
ing.   If  the  tirst  words  are  ''  No  price,"  the  mind 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PABAGBAPH  75 

goes  from  ''  no  "  to  "  price  "  without  interrnp- 
tion  or  thought  of  danger,  and  will  go  straight 
on  when  other  words  are  added,  thus,  "No 
price  too  high."  But  suppose  a  comma  is 
placed  after  "No."  The  comma  is  a  danger 
signal  which  shows  this  word  to  be  a  complete 
answer,  and  not  a  mere  adjective.  "  No,  price 
too  high  "  means  exactly  the  opposite  of  "  No 
price  too  high."  It  is  said  that  a  San  Fran- 
cisco agent  telegraphed  a  Sacramento  merchant : 
"  I  am  offered  ten  thousand  bushels  wheat  on 
your  account  at  one  dollar.  Shall  I  buy,  or  is 
it  too  hiofh  ?  "  The  merchant  wrote  his  answer- 
ing  telegram  thus:  "No,  price  too  high."  It 
was  a  careless  way  to  answer  ;  he  ought  at  least 
to  have  used  "  the  "  before  "  price."  The  opera- 
tor who  received  the  message  at  Sacramento 
understood  it,  "  No  price  too  high,"  and  the  mis- 
take cost  the  merchant  a  thousand  dollars, 
for  telegraph  companies  do  not  agree  to  trans- 
mit punctuation. 

What  misunderstandings  arise  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences  by  the  omission  of  commas  ? 

1.  "  Tt  will  give  ine  great  pleasure  to  see  you  on  ]\Ion- 
day  afternoon  at  half  past  four  to  listen  to  a  lecture  by 
Miss  Julia  Thayer,  the  poet  on  'Originality.' " 

2.  A  man  says  Dr.  Holmes  is  like  a  pear  in  the  matter 
of  getting  ripe.     Some  men  are  ripe  at  twenty,  and  must 


76      .4   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

be  made  the  most  of,  for  their  day  is  soon  over.  Some 
come  into  their  perfect  condition  late,  and  they  last  better 
than  the  summer  kiii<l. 

3.  Besides,  you  may  miss  seeing  the  beautiful  pictures 
drawn  for  "  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy  "  by  Mr.  Birch  and 
the  page  on  which  INIrs.  Burnett's  own  pen  wrote  about 
tlie  old  lawyer's  coming  to  tell  Cedric  that  he  was  an  earl 
and  ever  so  many  fascinating  tilings. 

4.  A  British  journal  recently  spoke,  in  referring  to  a 
marriage,  of  the  bride  as  "  the  daughter  of  Sir  Hector 
O'Dowd.  commanding  the  Boolah  Ghah  district  and  Lady 
O'Dovvd." 

').  The  two  nations  were  never  so  closely  allied  by 
mutual  sympathy  and  appreciation  as  now.  The  Ameri- 
can people  realized  this  during  the  late  war,  and  you  can 
imagine  that  all  those  who  wei'e  at  ]\Ianila  and  met  Sir 
Edward  Chichester,  commander  of  the  British  first-class 
cruiser  Immortal ile,  and  his  gallant  comrades  hold  that 
feeling  very  deeply. —Admiral  Dewey,  in  response  to 
British  cheers  at  Colomlio. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  68 :  Rarely  insert  a 
comma  save  as  a  warning  to  prevent  confusion  or 
misunderstanding . 

Exercise  69.  {Written.)  Revise  past  themes 
ill  the  light  of  Exercise  68,  erasing  with  the 
knife  all  unnecessary  commas,  and  inserting 
whatever  commas  are  necessary  to  prevent  mis- 
understanding. 

Exercise  70.  (Written.)  After  hearing  the 
following  character-sketch  read,   reproduce  it, 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGBAPH  77 

using  the  following :  individual,  ringing,  inci- 
siveness,  carrying,  compass,  quality,  charm, 
noticeably,  transparently,  predecessor,  apparent, 
deliberate,  independence.     Revise  as  in  62. 

THE   VOICE   AND   MANNER   OF   TWO    POPES 

The  Pope's  voice  is  as  distinctly  individual  as  his 
manner  of  speaking.  It  is  not  deep  nor  very  full,  hut, 
considering  his  great  age,  it  is  wonderfully  clear  and 
ringing,  and  it  has  a  certain  incisiveness  of  sound  which 
gives  it  great  carrying  power.  Pius  the  Ninth  had  as 
beautiful  a  voice,  both  in  compass  and  richness  of 
quality,  as  any  baritone  singer  in  the  Sixtine  choir.  No 
one  who  ever  heard  him  intone  the  "  Te  Deuni "  in  Saint 
Peter's,  in  the  old  days,  can  forget  the  grand  tones. 
He  was  gifted  in  many  ways  —  \\'ith  great  physical 
beauty,  with  a  rare  charm  of  manner,  and  with  a  most 
witty  humor;  and  in  character  he  Avas  one  of  the  most 
gentle  and  kind-hearted  men  of  his  day.  .  .  .  Leo  the 
Thirteenth  need  speak  but  half  a  dozen  words,  with 
one  glance  of  his  flashing  eyes  and  one  gesture  of  liis 
noticeably  long  arm  and  transparently  thin  hand,  and  the 
moral  distance  between  his  predecessor  and  himself  is 
at  once  apparent.  There  is  strength  still  in  every  move- 
ment, there  is  deliberate  decision  in  every  tone,  there  is 
lofty  independence  in  every  look.  —  Francis  Marion 
Crawford:  Ave  Roma. 

Exercise  71.  (Oral.}  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words  :  despair,  describe,  privilege, 
conscientious,  convictions,  tenacity,  sincere,  sin- 
cerity, persistency,  perseverance,  energetic,  effi- 
cient,   forcible,    decisive,    decision,    courteous. 


78      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

courtesy,  diverting,  contagions  good  nature, 
infectious  merriment,  effervescent  spirits,  attrac- 
tion, fascination,  retiring,  abhors  publicity, 
staid,  serene,  shrewd,  judgment,  admirable, 
hospitable. 

Mule  7  for  SpeUiru/.  —  (a)  Numbers  like 
the  following  take  the  hyphen:  seventy-three, 
seventy-third. 

(b)  The  hyphen  is  needed  in  a  compound 
adjective,  if  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  mean- 
ing wlien  the  hyphen  is  omitted.  "Red-hot 
iron"  may  be  a  different  idea  from  "red  hot 
iron." 

(tf)  iNIany  a  word  once  compounded  is  now 
written  solid,  that  is,  as  a  single  word  :  railroad, 
steamboat,  anybody,  anything,  raindrop,  forever, 
schoolboy,  schoolhouse,  schoolmate,  schoolfel- 
low (^but  school  days,  school  teacher,  school  dis- 
trict) ;  myself,  yourself  (but  one's  self) ; 
childlike,  lifelike.^ 

Exercise  72.  (  Written.')  Write  a  character- 
sketcii  of  an  ideal  boy  or  girl,  using  such  of 
the  words  in  Exercise  71  as  seem  to  you  fitting. 
Revise  as  in  Exercise  62. 

1  Mr.  Teall's  Punctuation  and  his  Compound  Words 
should  be  accessible  to  the  student  for  reference. 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  79 

Exercise    73,     (Oral.)    How   to   punctuate 

appositive   and  slightly  parenthetical   expressions. 
—  Read  the  following  passages  :  — 

1.  Professor  James,  an  expert  in  mental  science,  says, 
"■  Every  small  stroke  of  virtue  or  vice  leaves  its  ever-so- 
little  scar.  Nothing  we  ever  do  is,  in  strict  literalness, 
wiped  out." 

2.  David  INIaydoIe,  the  hammer-maker  of  central  New 
York,  was  an  artist.  "Yes,"  he  said,  "I  have  made 
hammers  here  for  twenty-eight  years."  "  Well,  tlien, 
you  ought  to  be  al>le  to  make  a  pretty  good  hammer  by 
this  time."  "No,  sir,"  was  the  answer,  "I  never  made  a 
pretty  good  hammer.  I  make  (he  best  hammer  made  in 
the  United  States."  —  O.  S.  INIakdkn  :  The  Secret  of 
Achiecement. 

In  the  preceding  sentences  what  plirases  are 
inserted  side  by  side  with  tlie  subject  to  ex- 
plain the  subject?  Phrases  placed  in  this  way 
are  said  to  be  appositives  ;  the  words  in  appo- 
sition mean  "side  by  side."  Appositive  words 
and  phrases  are  usually  preceded  and  fol- 
lowed by  the  comma.  In  the  cases  given 
above  there  would  be  no  misunderstanding  if 
the  commas  were  omitted,  but  they  save  tlie 
mind  from  any  possible  confusion.  Tlie  apposi- 
tive has  no  part  in  the  statement  to  be  made  ; 
it  is  thrown  in  ;  it  is  almost  like  a  parenthesis, 
some  explanation  that  we  read  in  a  lower  voice 
before  we  go  on. 


80      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSFFION 

As  for  real  parentheses,  enclosed  in  marks  of 
parenthesis  (like  this),  they  are  nsed  less  and 
less,  because  when  long  they  are  confusing. 
There  was  a  time  when  even  slightly  paren- 
thetical expressions  like  "  as  they  say,"  and 
"  said  the  old  man,"  were  enclosed  in  curves. 
Nowadays  such  expressions  are  set  off  by  com- 
mas, as  below. 

1.  Outside  success  is  Biruiinghani  jewelry,  of  wliich 
an  old  copper  coal-scuttle  and  a  sovereign  can  make,  as 
they  say,  a  thousand  pounds'  worth. 

2.  Practically  all  the  clothing  sold  in  Chicago,  said 
Mrs.  Kelly,  is  made  in  sweat-shops  there. 

3.  Mr.  Fisher,  in  his  biographical  sketch,  "  The  True 
Benjamin  Franklin,"  tells  the  following  story. 

On  the  eastern  shore  of  Mai-ylainl  a  young  man  called 
one  evening  on  an  old  farmer  to  ask  him  how  it  was  that 
he  had  become  rich.  "  It  is  a  long  story,"  said  the  old 
man,  "and  while  I  am  telling  it  we  might  as  well  save 
the  candle,"  and  he  blew  it  out. 

"  You  need  not  tell  the  story,"  said  the  youth.  "  I 
see." 

Read  aloud  the  following  passages  and  say 
where  commas  should  be  inserted  :  — 

1.  The  hush  of  night  draws  near.  There  is  only  one 
touch  more  to  close  the  chapter ;  one  sound  to  lull  the 
sleepy  birds  and  fill  the  woodland  spaces  with  drowsy 
melody.  And  presently  as  the  first  note  of  a  whii)poor- 
will  comes  from  the  more  remote  thickets  there  follows  a 
medley  of  jangled  brass  a  clangorous  and  broken  chorus 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PAR  AGE  APR  81 

of  liells.  And  in  the  shadows  followed  by  a  shadow  the 
cows  come  through  the  reaches  of  odorous  dust  and  by 
tlie  bax"s  as  you  pass  they  surge  with  a  great  cling-clang- 
hig  into  the  bai'iiyard  ahead  and  the  night  folds  down  a 
leaf  while  darkness  settles  on  the  country  road.  —  Ernest 
McGaffey. 

2.  An  anonymous  writer  generally  supposed  to  be  the 
Rev.  Henry  AVard  Beecher  after  describing  how  when  a 
boy  he  stole  a  cannon-ball  from  the  navy-yard  at  Cliarles- 
town  and  with  much  trepidation  carried  it  away  in  that 
universal  pocket  of  youth  his  luxt  moralizes  thus  :  "  When 
I  reached  home  I  had  nothing  to  do  with  my  shot.  I 
did  not  dare  show  it  in  the  house,  or  tell  where  I  got  it ; 
and  after  one  or  two  solitary  rolls  I  gave  it  away  on  the 
same  day.  But  after  all  that  six-pounder  rolled  a  good 
deal  of  sense  into  my  skull.  I  think  it  was  the  very  last 
thing  that  ever  I  stole  excepting  a  little  matter  of  heart 
now  and  then  and  it  gave  me  a  notion  of  the  folly  of 
coveting  more  than  you  can  enjoy  which  has  made  my 
whole  life  happier.  It  was  rather  a  severe  mode  of  cate- 
chism bat  ethics  rul)bed  in  with  a  six-pounder  shot  are 
better  than  none  at  all.  But  I  see  men  doing  the  same 
tiling  getting  into  underground  and  dirty  vaults  and 
gathering  up  wealth  which  will  when  got  roll  around 
their  heads  like  a  ball  and  be  not  a  wliit  softer  because 
it  is  gold  instead  of  iron  though  there  is  not  a  man  on 
'Cliange  who  will  believe  that.  ...  I  have  seen  young 
men  enrich  themselves  by  pleasure  in  the  same  wise  way 
sparing  no  pains  and  scrupling  at  no  sacrifice  of  principle 
for  the  sake  of  at  last  carrying  a  burden  which  no  man 
can  bear.  All  the  world  is  busy  in  striving  for  things 
that  give  little  pleasure  and  bring  much  care.  I  am 
accustomed  in  all  my  walks  among  men  noticing  their 
ways  and  their  folly  to  think  "There  is  a  man  stealing 
a  cannon-ball." 

G 


82      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  73 :  Set  off  appositive 
and  slightly  parenthetical  expressions  by  the  comma 
before  and  after. 

Exercise  l-i.  {Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  73. 

Exercise  75.  In  the  hmdscape  there  are 
many  kinds  of  beauty,  but  perhaps  all  may 
roughly  be  classed  under  two  general  types,  — 
the  picturesque,  in  which  angles  abound,  and 
the  graceful,  in  which  curved  lines  abound. 
After  hearing  the  following  description  of  a 
picturesque  landscape  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using  the  following :  ascend,  blue,  cathedral, 
innumerable,  beat,  requiem,  chrdet,  Fron-Alp, 
myriad,  shadowy.     Revise  as  in  Exei'cise  62. 

the  bay  of  uri 

Steepest  there  on  its  western  side,  the  walls  of  its  rocks 
ascend  to  heaven.  Far  in  tlie  l)lue  of  evening,  like  a 
great  cathedral  pavement,  lies  the  lake  in  its  darkness; 
and  you  may  hear  the  whisper  of  innumerable  falling- 
waters  return  from  the  hollows  of  the  cliff,  like  the  voices 
of  a  multitude  praying  under  their  breath.  From  time 
to  time  the  beat  of  a  wave,  slow  lifted  where  the  rocks 
lean  over  the  black  depth,  dies  heavily  as  tlie  last  note  of 
a  requiem.  Opposite,  green  with  grass,  and  set  with 
chalet  villages,  the  Fron-Alj)  rises,  .  .  .  and  above, 
against  the  clouds  of  twilight,  ghostly  in  the  gray  preci- 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  83 

pice,  stand,  myriad  by  myriad,  the  shadowy  armies  of 
pine.  —  John  IIuskin  :  il/or/eni  Putn/ers  (adapted). 

Exercise  76.  (Ora/.)  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words  :  picturesque,  rugged,  moun- 
tainous, tremendous,  buttress,  precipice,  gorge, 
canyon,  abyss,  ravine,  chasm,  boulder,  upheaval, 
cataract,  preference,  descend,  visible. 

Rule  8  for  SpeHlng.  —  The  following  words 
end  in  ible^  whereas  a  very  much  larger  number 
end  in  able :  accessible,  admissible,  audible, 
combustible,  compreliensiljle,  contemptible, 
credible,  defensible,  discernible,  divisible,  fal- 
lible, flexible,  forcil)le,  horrible,  illegible,  im- 
possible, incorrigible,  indelible,  indivisible, 
invincible,  invisible,  irresistible,  permissible, 
possible,  responsible,  sensible,  visible. 

Exercise  77.  {Written.^  Use  a  part  of  the 
words  of  Exercise  70  in  describing  a  pictu- 
resque landscape.  Let  it  be  an  actual  landscape 
if  you  remember  such  an  one,  otherwise  an 
imaginary  scene. 

Exercise  78.  (^Oral.}  How  to  punctuate 
words  in  a  series.  —  Read  aloud  the  following 
paragraph  :  — 


84      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

I  remember  particularly  an  evening  effect  in  the  cloister 
of  San  Annunziata,  when  the  belfry-tower  showed  with 
its  pendulous  bells  like  a  great,  graceful  flower  against 
the  dome  of  the  church  behind  it.  The  quiet  in  the 
place  was  almost  sensible.  The  pale  light,  suffused  with 
rose,  had  a  delicate  clearness ;  there  was  a  little  agreeable 
thrill  of  cold  in  the  air  :  there  could  not  have  been  a  more 
refined  moment's  pleasure  offered  to  a  sympathetic  tourist 
loitering  slowly  home  to  his  hotel.  —  William  Dean 
HowELLS  :    Venetian  Days. 

Note  the  words,  "  great,  graceful  flower," 
and  the  comma  between  the  two  adjectives.  It 
is  there  because  *"  great  "  and  "  graceful  "  are 
in  a  series  ;  that  is  to  say,  each  word  is  under- 
stood by  itself  ;  the  flower  is  "  great "  and  the 
flower  is  "graceful."  But  look  a  little  lower, 
to  the  Avords  "-little  agreeable  tlirill."  Here 
the  adjectives  are  not  felt  as  individuals  in  a 
series.  Mr.  Ho  wells  wishes  us  to  feel  that 
there  was  an  agreeable  thrill  of  cold,  and,  in- 
cidentally, that  the  agreeable  thrill  was  but  a 
little  one.  Examine  the  following  nonsensical 
statements  and  say  where  commas  are  needed: — 

A  bad  little  boy  stole  a  large  red  apple  a  nice  thick  pie 
and  a  fine  fat  hen  from  a  poor  old  man.  The  man  gave 
chase  with  a  big  black  stick  an  old  rusty  cutlass  a  heavy 
old-fashioned  flint-lock  rifle. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  omit  the 
comma  in  a  series  of  words  whenever  and  was 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPII  85 

used ;  the  custom  is  indeed  kept  up  by  a  few 
writers,  but  in  general  it  is  going  out.  The 
old  practice  may  be  illustrated  thus  :  "  Lee, 
Jackson  and  Stuart  were  Confederate  officers  ; 
Grant,  Sherman  and  Sheridan  were  Federal 
officers."  This  looks  as  if  "Jackson  and 
Stuart"  were  a  sort  of  military  firm,  just  as 
"Besant  and  Rice"  was  once  a  novel-writing 
firm.  The  better  punctuation  is  :  "  Lee,  Jack- 
son, and  Stuart  were  Confederate  officers;  Grant, 
Sherman,  and  Sheridan  were  Federal  officers." 

Read  aloud  the  following  paragraph,  and  say 
where  commas  are  necessary  :  — 

The  education  of  a  young  man  or  young  woman  is  in 
a  few  words  embraced  in  the  power  of  liabit.  Every 
young  person  needs  to  learn  the  power  of  attention  the 
value  of  industry  jironiptitude  in  beginning  work  method 
accuracy  and  desjiatch  in  carrying  it  out  courage  before 
difficulties  self-denial  self-control  and  temperance.  These 
are  the  primary  qualities  and  the  fundamental  I'ules  for 
success  in  life.  —  Chahlf.s  ruATT. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  78  :  Separate  w^ords  in 
a  series  by  the  comma,  even  when  and  connects  the 
last  two. 

ExERGiSE  79.  (Written.)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  78. 

Exercise  80.  (Written.)  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph,  which  describes  a  graceful 


8G      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

landscape,  ask  the  meaning  of  any  unfamiliar 
words.  Then  reproduce  it,  using  :  slope,  roots, 
free,  winding,  arching,  veiled,  sweeping,  undu- 
lation, inlets.     Revise  as  in  62. 

GEASS    UPON    THE   MOUNTAINS 

Go  out  in  the  sjiring  time  among  the  meadows  that 
slope  from  the  shores  of  the  Swiss  lakes  to  the  roots  of 
their  lower  mountains.  There,  mingled  with  the  taller 
gentians,  and  the  white  narcissus,  the  grass  grows  deep 
and  free  ;  and  as  you  follow  the  winding  mountain  paths, 
beneatli  arching  boughs,  all  veiled  with  blossom  —  paths 
that  forever  droop  and  rise  over  the  green  banks  and 
mounds  sweeping  down  in  scented  undulation  to  the  blue 
water, ...  —  look  up  towards  the  higher  hills,  where  the 
waves  of  everlasting  green  roll  silently  into  their  long- 
inlets  among  the  shadows  of  the  pines  ;  and  we  may  per- 
haps at  last  know  the  meaning  of  those  quiet  words  of 
the  l-i7th  Psalm,  "  He  maketh  grass  to  grow  upon  the 
mountains."  —  John  Ruskin  :    Modem  Painters. 

Exercise  81.  (Oral.)  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words  :  innumeral)le,  invisible,  cres- 
cent, changeable,  fiery,  splendor,  indescribable, 
audible,  exquisite,  tranquillity,  serenity,  disap- 
point, graceful,  rolling  country,  sloping,  curv- 
ing, recede,  symmetry,  correspond,  fertile, 
fertility,  scythe,  preference.  Review  the  rules 
of  sjDelling  under  Exercises  31,  36,  41,  46,  56. 
66,  71,  76. 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  87 

Exercise  82.  (Written,')  Write  a  descrip- 
tion of  an  actnal  night  scene,  or  of  a  graceful 
landscape,  using  a  part  of  the  words  found  in 
Exercise  81.  Revise  with  reference  to  hand- 
writing, spelling,  punctuation,  and  the  use  of 
conjunctions. 

Exercise  83.  (Oral.')  How  to  punctuate 
relative  clauses.  —  Read  aloud  the  following- 
sentences  :  — 

1.  He  who  praises  himself  releases  every  other  person 
from  the  obligation  to  praise  him. 

2.  The  Americans  who  live  in  North  America  are 
mostly  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  ;  those  who  live  in  South 
America  are  mostly  of  some  Latin  ^  race. 

3.  A  man  is  rich  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  things 
which  he  can  afford  to  let  alone.  —  Tiiokeau  :    Waltleii. 

4.  The  second  essential  of  dress  is  neatness.  A  self- 
respecting  man  will  not  wear  cracked  gloves,  or  a  coat 
that  lacks  a  button  or  is  frayed  at  the  edges  or  out  at 
elbows.  —  W.  T.  S.  IIewett:  Nolei<  for  Bo>/s. 

Point  out  the  relative  clauses  in  the  preceding 

sentences.     Now  examine  each    carefully  and 

say  whether  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  identify 

the  person  or  tlung  spoken  of.     Jf  really  neces- 

wiry,  it  is  correctly  punctuated  here  ;   that  is,  it 

is  7iot  preceded  by  any  comma.     Suppose    we 

said,    "He,    who    praises    himself,"    etc.;    how 

1  Do  you  habitually  spell  this  word  correctly  ? 


88      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

foolish  the  pause  after  Ife  would  sound.     The 
thought   is    "  He    who,"    and   it   must   not    be 
broken  into  by  any  mark  of  punctuation. 
Read  aloud  the  follow^ing  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  Americans,  who  up  to  this  time  had  reserved 
their  fire,  now  opened  on  the  British. 

2.  The  Scotch,  who  eat  oatmeal  freely,  are  tall,  mus- 
cular, and  bony. 

3.  The  Englishman,  who  is  supposed  to  be  very  fond 
of  roast  beef,  is  rosier  than  the  Chinaman,  whose  usual 
food  is  rice  and  fish. 

Point  out  the  relative  clauses  in  the  pre- 
ceding sentences.  Are  they  necessary  in  order 
to  identify  the  persons  spoken  of  ?  If  not  nec- 
essary, they  are  correctly  punctuated  here  ;  for 
the  comma  precedes  and  follows  each  one,  just 
as  if  it  were  parenthetical. 

Read  aloud  the  following  anecdote,  and  say 
where  commas  are  needed  :  — 

A    GEllMAN"    DUEL 

The  following  story  is  told  of  two  noted  Germans,^ 
Bismarck  and  Virchow.  The  latter  had  severely  criti- 
cised the  former  in  his  capacity  of  Chancellor,  and  was 
challenged  to  fight  a  duel.  The  man  of  science  was 
found  by  Bismarck's  seconds  in  his  laboratory,  hard  at 
work  at  those  experiments  which  had  for  their  object  the 
discovery  of  a  means  of  destroying  trichinre  which  were 
making  great   ravages   iji    (Jennany.      "  Ah,"   said   the 

1  Do  you  liabitually  spell  (4erman  and  French  right  ? 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  89 

doctor,  "  a  challenge  from  Prince  Bismarck,  eh  !  Well, 
well!  as  I  am  the  challenged  party,  I  suppose  I  have  the 
choice  of  weapons.  Here  they  are  !  "  He  held  up  two 
large  sausages  which  seemed  to  be  exactly  alike.  "  One 
of  these  sausages,"  he  said,  "  is  filled  with  trichinae ;  it  is 
deadly.  The  other  is  perfectly  wholesome.  Externally 
they  can't  be  told  apart.  Let  his  Excellency  do  me  the 
honor  to  choose  whichever  of  these  he  wishes,  and  eat  it, 
and  I  will  eat  the  other ! "  No  duel  was  fought,  and  no 
one  accused  Virchow  of  cowardice.  —  A.  H.  Miles:  A 
TJiousiand  and  One  Anecdotes. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  83  :  Place  a  comma  be- 
fore a  relative  clause  if  the  clause  is  not  needed  to 
identify  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

Exercise  84.  (Written.)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  84. 

Exercise  85.  (Written.')  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using  :  Muro,  Basilicata,  lonely,  uninhabited, 
repair,  embrasure,  deep,  vaulted,  comparatively, 
flimsy,  remainder,  fortress,  ill-shaped,  corridors, 
dusky,  flagstones  [no  hyphen]. 

A   MEDLEVAL   CASTLE 

I  once  visited  the  ancient  castle  of  Muro,  in  the  Basili- 
cata, one  of  the  southern  provinces  in  Italy.  ...  It  is  as 
wild  and  lonely  a  place  as  you  will  meet  with  in  Europe, 
and  yet  the  great  castle  has  never  been  a  ruin,  nor  at  any 
time  uninhabited,  since  it  was  built  in  the  eleventh  cen- 


90      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

tury,  over  eight  hundred  years  ago.  Nor  lias  the  lower 
part  of  it  ever  needed  repair.  The  walls  are  in  j^laces 
twenty-five  feet  thick,  of  solid  stone  and  mortar,  so  that 
the  embrasure  by  which  each  narrow  window  is  reached 
is  like  a  tunnel  cut  through  rock,  while  the  deep  prisons 
below  are  hewn  out  of  the  rock  itself.  Up  to  what  we 
should  call  the  third  story,  every  room  is  vaulted.  Above 
that  the  floors  are  laid  on  beams,  and  the  walls  are  not 
more  than  eight  feet  thick  —  comparatively  flimsy  for 
such  a  place  !  Nine-tenths  of  it  was  built  for  strength  — 
the  small  remainder  for  comfort;  there  is  not  a  single 
large  hall  in  all  the  great  fortress,  and  the  courtyard 
within  the  main  gate  is  a  gloomy,  ill-shaped  little  paved 
space,  barely  big  enough  to  give  fifty  men  standing  room. 
Nothing  can  give  any  idea  of  the  crookedness  of  it  all,  of 
the  small  dark  corridors,  the  narrow  winding  steps,  the 
dusky  inclined  ascents,  paved  with  broad  flagstones  that 
echo  the  lightest  tread,  and  that  must  have  rung  and 
roared  like  sea  caves  to  the  traini^  of  armed  men.  — 
Francis  JMarion  Crawpokd  :    Are  Roma. 

Exercise  8G.  {Oral.)  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words  :  architecture,  academy,  ap- 
in'oach,  access,  massive,  masonry,  buttress,  pil- 
lar, corridor,  capital,  arcliitrave,  cornice,  fagade, 
correspond,  splendor,  showy,  dingy,  pretentious, 
quiet,  noticeable,  exquisite. 

Mule  9  for  SpcUuKj.  —  The  possessive  singu- 
lar of  a  moiiosybabh^  ending  in  s  is  regularly 
made  by  adding  's,  pronounced  as  an  extra  syl- 
lable, and  in  America  tlie  same  rule  is  coming 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  91 

to  be  applied  to  words  of  more  than  one  s}d- 
lable,  thus  :  Jones's,  Burns's,  HigginsV.  For 
the  polysyllable  ending  in  the  sound  of  s,  merely 
the  apostrophe  is  sometimes  required,  as  in  the 
plural.  Thus  :  "  Moses'  seat  "  ;  "  conscience' 
sake." 

Exercise  87.  (Written.)  T^se  a  part  of  the 
vocabulary  of  Exercise  8<)  in  describing  faith- 
fully some  actual  building  that  you  have  seen. 
Revise  the  handwriting,  spelling,  punctuation, 
and  use  of  conjunctions. 

Exercise  88.  (Oral.}  Read  aloud  your  best 
recent  theme  and  receive  criticisms  from  the 
class. 

Exercise  80.  (Ornl.)  How  to  punctuate  the 
beginning  of  a  quotation.  —  It  is  a  mistake  to 
tliink  that  every  little  word  or  phrase  quotiMl 
must  be  preceded  by  a  punctuation  mark  ; 
titles,  for  example,  are  rarely  so  preceded. 
It  would  lumecessarily  interrupt  the  stream 
of  thought  to  place  a  comma  before  "The  R(^- 
venge "  in  the  following  (quotation  from  old 
Thomas   l^^dk;r. 

Ill  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth  there  was  a  royal  ship 
called  "  The  Revenge,"  which,  having  maintained  a  long 


92      A   FIRST  MAX  UAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

fight  against  a  fleet  of  Spaniards  (wlieiein  eight  hundred 
great  sliot  wei'e  discharged  against  hei),  was  at  last  fain 
to  yield ;  but  no  sooner  were  lier  men  gone  out  of  her, 
and  two  hundred  fresh  Spaniards  come  into  her,  than  she 
suddenly  sank  them  and  herself ;  and  so  "  The  Revenge  " 
was  revenged. 

It    is    clear,    however,    that    punctuation    is 

needed  before  quotations  of   any  considerable 

length ;  the  quotation  marks,  standing  as  they 

do  above  the  line,  are  hardly  enough  to  show 

the  change  of    speaker.      When  the  quotation 

is  informal,  the  comma  is  employed  as  in  the 

following  :  — 

The  son  of  a  man  very  eminent  in  one  of  the  learned 
professions  in  Enghind  was  once  standing  in  a  felon's 
dock,  awaiting  a  sentence  of  transportation.  The  judge 
said  to  liiiii,  "Do  jou  remember  your  fatlier?"  "Per- 
fectly," said  the  youth  ;  "  whenever  I  entered  his  presence 
he  said,  '  Run  away,  my  lad,  and  don't  trouble  me.'  " 

When    tlie    quotation    is    formal,    the  colon  is 

used,  as  in  the  following  :  — 

Socrates  once  said,  "  Could  I  climb  to  the  highest 
place  in  Athens,  I  would  lift  my  voice  and  proclaim : 
'  Fellow-citizens,  why  do  ye  turn  and  scrape  every  stone 
to  gather  wealth,  and  talce  so  little  care  of  your  children, 
to  whom  one  day  you  must  relinquish  it  all?'  " 

Read  aloud  the  following  anecdote,  and  say 
what  punctuation  is  needed  at  the  places  in- 
dicated by  the  caret :  — 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE  PARAGRAPH  93 


THE    ADVICE    OF    BENJAMIN    WEST 

As  a  test  for  his  fitness  for  a  place  as  student  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  Morse  made  a  drawing  from  a  small 
cast  of  the  Farnese  Hercules.  He  took  this  to  West,  who 
examined  the  drawing  carefully  and  handed  it  back, 
saying/^  "  Vei'y  well,  sir,  very  -well;  go  on  and  finish  it." 
"It  is  finished,"  said  the  expectant  student.  "Oh,  no," 
said  the  president.  "  Look  here,  aud  here,  and  here," 
pointing  out  many  unfinished  places  which  had  escaped 
the  eye  of  the  young  artist.  ]\Iorse  quickly  observed  the 
defects,  spent  a  week  in  further  perfecting  his  drawing, 
and  then  took  it  to  West,  confident  that  it  was  above 
criticism.  The  venerable  j^resident  of  the  Academy 
bestowed  more  praise  than  before  and,  with  a  pleasant 
smile,  handed  it  ])ack  to  Morse,  sayingy^  "  Very  well,  in- 
deed, sir.  Go  on  and  finish  it."  "Is  it  not  finished?" 
inquired  the  almost  discouraged  student.  "  See,"  said 
West,  "you  have  not  marked  that  muscle,  nor  the  articu- 
/ation  of  the  finger-joints."  Three  days  more  were  spent 
upon  the  drawing,  when  it  was  taken  back  to  the  im- 
placable critic.  "  Very  clever,  indeed,"  said  West ;  "  very 
clever.  Now  go  on  and  finish  it."  "  I  cannot  finish  it," 
Morse  replied,  when  the  old  man,  patting  him  on  the 
shoulder,  said/^  "AVell,  I  have  tried  you  long  enough. 
Xow,  sir,  you  have  learned  more  by  this  drawing  than 
you  would  have  accomplished  in  double  the  time  by  a 
dozen  half-finished  beginnings.  It  is  not  many  draw- 
ings, but  the  character  of  one,  which  makes  a  thorough 
draughtsman.  Finish  one  picture,  sir,  and  you  are  a 
painter."  —  P.  G.  IIubekt,  Jii. :  Inventory. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  89 :  Before  an  informal 
quotation  place  a  comma  ;  before  a  formal  quotation, 
a  colon. 


94      A    Fin  ST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Revise  i);ist  themes  in  the  light  of  tlie  con- 
clusion just  given. 

Exercise  90.  {Oral  and  Written.}  How  to 
punctuate  the  beginning  of  an  enumeration  that 
explains  a  preceding  summary.  —  If  one  writes, 
'■'•The  great  New  England  poets  were  Emer- 
son, Longfellow,  Holmes,  Lowell,  and  Whit- 
tier,"  here  is  an  enumeration,  yet  there  is  no 
need  of  any  punctuation  before  "  Emerson," 
the  first  word  in  the  list  of  names.  But  if 
one  writes,  "•  The  great  New  England  poets 
were  five,  —  Emerson,  Longfellow,  Holmes, 
Lowell,  and  Whittier,"  the  enumeration  ex- 
plains a  preceding  general  statement,  and  the 
need  of  punctuation  is  at  once  felt.  When 
the  enumeration  is  infoi-mal,  as  above,  the 
comma  with  the  dash  is  generally  used.  Some- 
times, however,  the  enumeration  is  so  formal 
that  a  colon  is  set  before  it,  thus :  "  The 
great  New  England  poets  were  five,  as  fol- 
lows :  Emerson,  Longfellow,  Holmes,  Lowell, 
and  Whittier."  The  expressions  "as  follows" 
and  "the  following"  are  almost  the  only 
ones  that  require  'a  colon  for  the  purpose  of 
introducing  an  enumeration,  hi  modern  Eng- 
lish the  colon  is  always    a   mark   of   expecta- 


THE  DESCRIPTIVE   PARAGEAPH  95 

tioii  ;   it  always  indicates  that  something  is  to 
follow. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  90  :  Before  an  informal 
enumeration  that  explains  a  preceding  summary,  place 
a  comma  and  a  dash  ;  before  a  formal  enumeration,  a 
colon. 

Revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of  this  con- 
clusion. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE    LOGICAL  1    PARAGRAPH,   A  CHAIN   OF    REA- 
SONING 

Exercise  01.  (Oral.}  To  understand  what 
is  meant  by  a  chain  of  reasoning  from  a  topic 
to  a  logical  conclusion.  —  The  human  mind 
has  accomplished  some  very  wonderful  things, 
but  it  has  not  done  so  without  much  con- 
fused thinkinof.  Men  saw  the  liG^htninsf  for 
thousands  of  years  before  they  groped  their 
way  to  the  conclusion  that  lightning  is  the 
same  force  which  is  shown  by  a  cat's  back 
when  rul)bed  on  a  frosty  morning.  ]Men  are 
still  groping  their  way  toward  the  full  meaning 
of  this  conclusion.  What  we  call  thinking  is 
a  sort  of  searching  in  the  dark  for  a  thread  that 
will  lead  the  thinker  into  the  light.  AVhen  we 
ask  a  friend  for  his  opinion  on  a  question  new 
to  him,  he  tries  to  arrive  at  a  conclusion.  Step 
by  step  he  reasons  his  way ;  when  he  gets  to 

1  The  large  word  logical  should  not  alarm  any  student. 
Its  meaning,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  is  very  simple. 

96 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  97 

the  end  of  the  chain  of  thought,  he  has  "  made 
up  his  mind,"  has  reached  his  conclusion. 
This  he  now  speaks  out,  communicating  it  to 
us.  If  we  have  already  arrived  at  the  same 
final  judgment,  we  say  so,  and  very  likely  the 
conversation  on  that  question  ends.  If,  how- 
ever, his  conclusion  is  new  and  interesting  to 
us,  but  not  quite  clear,  we  ask  him  how  he 
reached  it.  The  next  process  is  for  huu  to 
begin  at  the  point  where  we  are  in  the  dark, 
and  to  conduct  us  into  whatever  light  he  has. 
When  this  conducting  process  is  by  spoken 
words,  it  is  like  walking  step  by  step  with  us 
and  showing  us  the  way.  When  the  process 
is  by  writing,  and  we,  the  readers,  have  to  de- 
pend entirely  on  the  words  we  see,  it  is  like 
a  cliain  by  whicli  we  feel  our  way,  link  after 
link.  The  situation  is  similar  to  that  of  tlie 
(Ireek  hero  Theseus  in  tlie  Cretan  labyrinth. 
The  labyrinth  was  a  strange  underground 
building,  full  of  turnings,  where  a  stranger 
might  wander  till  he  died.  Theseus  was  de- 
termined to  slay  the  man-eating  monster  that 
inhabited  it,  but  how  he  himself  sliould  get  out 
again  he  did  not  knoAV.  The  princess  Ariadne 
was  acquainted  with  all  the  secret  windings  of 
the  place,  and  did  not  dread  the  habitant.     For 


98      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

love  of  Theseus  she  carried  a  thread  from 
the  dark  centre  to  the  clear  light  of  day. 
Theseus  entered,  slew  the  beast,  and  made 
his  way  out  by  letting  the  thread  slip  through 
his  fingers  as  he  advanced. 

Every  written  piece  of  reasoning  is  a  chain 
by  which  one  person  is  guided  to  another's  final 
conclusion  about  a  given  topic.  There  can 
be  no  piece  of  reasoning  without  a  topic,  a 
final  conclusion,  and  a  chain  of  sentences  con- 
necting the  two.  The  final  conclusion  may 
be  very  simple  and  very  easily  reached,  or  it 
may  be  very  difficult.  If  one  writes,  "  I  had  a 
pleasant  time  yesterday,"  here  is  a  topic  and 
here  a  conclusion  about  it.  The  topic  is  the 
"  time  "  that  the  writer  had,  and  the  final  con- 
clusion is  that  "it  was  pleasant."  To  make  his 
conclusion  clear,  he  will  have  to  give  the 
chain  of  thought  which  explains  how  and  why 
the  time  was  pleasant.  Suppose,  however, 
one  writes,  "  After  thinking  as  long  as  pos- 
sible on  the  question  of  woman  suffrage,  I  have 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  women  should  not 
vote."  In  this  case  the  cliain  of  reasoning  that 
must  be  expressed  before  the  final  conclusion 
is  clear  will  make  a  very  long  composition 
indeed. 


THE  LOGICAL   PABAGEAPII  99 

Read  tlie  following  anecdotes  aloud,  and  in 
each  case  state  the  topic  and  the  final  conclu- 
sion :  — 

1.     AN    ANECDOTE   OF    MR.    KIPLING 

When  ]\Ir.  Rudyard  Kipling  was  a  lad  he  went  on 
a  sea-voyage  with  his  father,  Mr.  Lockwood  Kipling. 
The  Academy  prints  an  anecdote  of  that  time  character- 
istic of  the  young  writer's  early  grip  on  things.  Soon 
after  the  vessel  got  under  way  Mr.  Kipling  went  below, 
leaving  the  boy  on  deck.  Presently  there  was  a  great 
commotion  overhead,  and  one  of  the  ship's  officers 
rushed  down  and  banged  at  Mr.  Kipling's  door.  "]\lr. 
Kipling,"  he  cried,  "your  boy  has  crawled  out  on  the- 
yard-arm,  and  if  he  lets  go  he'll  drown  !  "  "  Yes,"  said 
Mr.  Kipling,  glad  to  know  that  nothing  serious  was  the 
matter,  "but  he  won't  let  go."  —  The  Youth's  Companion. 

2.     A    STOIiY   OP   GRANT 

"I  have  such  a  rich  story  that  I  want  to  tell  you," 
said  an  officer,  who  one  evening  came  into  the  Union 
camp  in  a  rollicking  mood.  "  There  are  no  ladies 
present,  are  there?"  General  Grant,  lifting  his  eyes 
from  the  paper  which  he  was  reading,  and  looking  tlie 
officer  square  in  the  eye,  said  slowly,  but  deliberately, 
"No,  but  there  are  gentlemen  present."  —  O.  S.  ]Makden: 
The  Secret  of  Achiecement. 

3.     grant's   BUTTER-BORROWING 

General  Grant  relates  that  his  mother  sent  him  to 
a  neighbor's  to  bori-ow  some  l)utter.  Tliere  he  heard 
read  a  letter  as  to  a  possible  vacancy  at  West  Point.  He 
applied,   and   the   way   opened    for   him   to   obtain   the 


100      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

military  education  which  made  liim  so  useful  in  the 
crisis  of  his  country.  He  declared  that  it  was  because 
his  mother  happened  to  be  out  of  butter  that  he  became 
general  and  President.  —  O.  S.  Mardex  :  The  Secret  of 
Achievement. 

We  are  now  ready  to  ask  ourselves  the  mean- 
ing of  logical,  and  we  sliall  find  the  answer 
very  easy.  The  more  thoughtful  a  writer 
is,  the  more  likely  he  is  to  think  right  and 
draw  a  correct  conclusion  ;  if  he  does  this,  his 
composition  is  lor/iml.  A  logical  composition  is 
one  in  which  the  conclusions  are  warranted  by 
the  reasons  given;  an  illogical  composition  is  one 
in  which  the  conclusions  are  not  so  warranted. 
If  a  writer  announces  as  his  topic  "Is  the  Earth 
Flat  or  Round  ? "  and  if  he  proceeds  to  infer 
that  it  is  flat  because  it  has  always  looked  flat 
to  him,  his  paragraph  will  be  illogical.  Our 
task  in  this  chapter  is  to  find  a  few  principles 
which  will  aid  us  in  drawing  right  conclusions, 
and  in  so  arranging  our  words  as  to  help  our 
readers  to  these. 

Exercise  92.  (Oral.}  To  express  every 
thought  which  helps  in  following  the  chain  to  the 
end.  —  In  conversation  the  speaker  conveys  his 
thought  partly  by  words  and  partly  by  looks 
or  gestures.     A  nod  is  an  answer  in  itself ;  so 


THE  LOGICAL  PAllAGRAPH  101 

is  a  shrug  of  the  shoulders.  Hence  the  words 
of  conversation  would  seem  disconnected  if 
printed  without  "stage  directions"  as  to  the 
smiles,  frowns,  nods,  and  shrugs  that  helped 
them  out  ;  links  in  the  thought  would  seem 
to  be  omitted.  In  a  similar  wajs  the  writing 
of  a  person  not  trained  to  write  is  pretty  sure 
to  lack  some  of  the  links  leading  to  the  con- 
clusion. 

The  younger  the  writer,  the  more  likely 
he  is  to  make  such  omissions.  A  little  child 
seems  to  think  that  other  people  are  "mind- 
readers  "  ;  that  they  will  understand  him,  no 
matter  what  he  says.  For  example,  he  runs  to 
his  busy  father  and  cheerfully  ronarks,  "  She 
has  come  down  now  I  "  Here  is  evidently  the 
conclusion  of  a  train  of  thouglit,  but  only  tlie 
conclusion.  The  child  expects  his  father  to 
supply  the  entire  composition,  so  to  speak.  It  is 
only  after  various  questions  have  been  asked  that 
the  child  deigns  to  furnish  the  unexpressed  parts 
of  the  chain.  Finally  the  following  composition 
is  pieced  together  :  "  Duke  the  dog  has  been 
chasing  the  cat.  I  mean  the  cat  Spatter,  not 
Sputter.  Spatter  ran  up  a  tree  —  the  little  elm 
in  front  of  the  house.  Duke  staid  there  until 
he  ofrew  tired,  and  left  the  cat  to  herself.      She 


102      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

]ias  come  down  now."  This  example  may  seem 
extreme,  but  listen  to  the  answers  made  by  boys 
in  the  class-room.  They  quite  forget  that  the 
purpose  of  a  recitation  is  to  show  what  the  stu- 
dent knows,  or,  better,  sees,  or,  still  better, 
reasons.  Tliey  answer  something  or  other, 
and  if  the  teacher  is  over-kind  they  are  let 
off  with  the  remark,  "  I  see  that  you  have 
the  idea."  It  is  an  important  thing  to  "have 
the  idea,"  no  matter  how  misty  and  vague  it 
may  be  ;  it  is  equally  important,  however, 
to  be  able  to  state  it  fully  and  definitely, 
showing  step  by  step  the  reasons  wdiy  it  is 
true. 

It  is  often  very  easy  to  supply  a  needed  link 
of  thought.  Examine  a  composition  of  two 
sentences,  the  first  containing  the  topic,  the 
second  the  conclusion.  "  Our  party  went  after 
flowers.  We  came  home  drenched  to  the 
skin."  One  does  not  need  to  be  a  philosopher 
in  order  to  cmess,  "It  rained."  Examine  the 
following  composition  of  two  sentences  :  "  All 
men  are  mortal.  Socrates  is  mortal."  Evi- 
dently the  missing  link  here  is  the  statement, 
"Socrates  is  a  man."  The  link  is  so  obvious 
indeed  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  express- 
ing it. 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  103 

When,  however,  the  conclusion  is  reached 
after  a  long  process  of  thinking-,  it  is  natural 
to  leave  out  of  the  written  version  some  of  the 
facts  or  reasons  by  which  the  thinker  made 
his  way.  Read  the  following  selections  aloud 
and  supply  sentences  that  will  complete  the 
chain  of  thought :  ^  — 

I  used  to  have  great  sport  in  catching  suckers.  We 
would  take  a  piece  of  annealed  copper  wire,  and  tie  one 
end  of  it  to  a  pole,  stiff  and  strong,  and  eight  or  ten  feet 
in  length.  On  the  other  end  of  the  wire,  which  was  long- 
enough  to  go  to  the  bed  of  the  stream  without  putting 
the  pole  in  the  water,  we  would  arrange  a  slip  noose  sev- 
eral inches  across,  and  then  slowly  and  quietly  let  the 
noose  down  in  front  of  the  suckers  as  they  were  feeding 
on  the  bottom  of  the  stream.  The  fish  did  not  seem  to 
see  the  wii-e  at  all.^  *  *  «  You  never  saw  such  an  astonished 
fish  as  that  sucker  was  then.  It  was  like  a  flash  of  light- 
ning out  of  a  clear  sky  to  him.  Bnt  the  fnn  of  it  for  the 
boy  was  that  the  more  the  fish  Avriggled,  and  tried  to  get 
away,  the  tighter  the  wire  held  him.  In  that  manner  I 
have  caught  many  suckers  that  would  weigh  from  three 
to  four  pounds  each.  —  Louis  Albert  Banks:  An 
Oregon  Bo/jhootl. 

The  Indians  flocked  about  tlie  store  of  a  new  trader, 
and  examined  his  goods,  but  offered  to  buy  nothing. 
Finally  the  chief  visited  him.  "How  do  you  do,  John? 
Show  me  goods.  Aha !  I  take  a  blanket  for  me,  and 
calico  for  squaw,  —  three  otter  skins  for  blanket  and  one 
for   calico.     Ugh !    pay   you   by'm-by    to-morrow."     He 

1  Note  that  '"stars"  or  asterisks  indicate  an  omission. 


104      A   FinST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

received  his  goods,  and  left.  On  the  next  day  he  re- 
turned with  a  large  part  of  his  band,  his  blanket  full  of 
skins.  "Now,  John,  I  pay  you."  He  drew  from  his 
blanket  four  otter  skins,  one  after  the  other,  laying  them 
on  the  counter.  After  a  moment's  hesitation,  he  drew 
out  a  fifth,  a  rich  and  rare  one,  and  laid  it  on  the  counter. 
"  That's  right,  John."  Pushing  it  back,  the  trader  re- 
plied. "  You  owe  me  but  four.  I  want  only  my  just  dues." 
They  passed  it  back  and  forth  between  them  several 
times,  till  at  length  the  chief  appeared  satisfied.  He  put 
the  skin  back  in  his  blanket,  scrutinized  the  trader  and 
then,  stepping  to  tlie  door,  *  *  *  Then,  tui-ning  to  the 
trader,  he  said,  "  Suppose  you  took  last  skin,  I  tell  my 
people  no  trade  with  you.  We  drive  off  othei's  ;  but  now 
you  be  Indians'  friend,  and  we  be  yours."  Before  dark 
the  trader  was  waist-deep  in  furs,  and  had  his  till  well 
filled  with  cash.  —  O.  S.  Marden  :  The  Secret  of  Achieve- 
ment. 

Sir  George  Staunton  visited  a  man  in  India  who  had 
committed  murder;  and  in  order  not  only  to  save  his 
life,  but  what  was  of  much  greater  consequence  to  him, 
his  caste,  he  had  submitted  to  a  terrible  penalty,  —  to 
sleep  for  seven  years  on  a  bed,  the  entire  top  of  which 
was  studded  with  iron  points,  as  sharj)  as  they  could  be 
without  penetrating  the  flesh.  Sir  George  saw  him  dur- 
ing the  fifth  year  of  his  sentence.  *  *  *  He  could 
sleep  couifortal)ly  on  his  bed  of  thorns,  and  he  said  that 
at  the  end  of  the  seven  years  he  thought  he  should  use 
the  same  bed  from  choice.  —  Ibid. 

"  I  am  ApoUyon,"  said  a  crank  who  invaded  the  library 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington;  "I  am  sent  to  kill  you." 
"Kill  me?  Very  odd."  "I  am  Apollyon,  and  must  put 
you  to  death."  "Obliged  to  do  it  to-day?"  "I  am  not 
told  the  day  or  the  hour,  but  I  must  do  my  mission." 
"Very  inconvenient,"  said  the  duke,  "very  busy,  —  great 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  105 

many  letters  to  write.  Call  again,  and  write  me  word,  — 
I'll  be  ready  for  you."  The  duke  went  on  with  his  cor- 
respondence. *  *  *  ,  and  backed  out  of  the  room.  — 
Ibid. 


Exercise  93.  (  Oral.')  To  reject  every  thought 
not  needed  for  reaching  the  conclusion.  —  It  was 

a  favorite  joke  of  "Artemus  Ward,"  the  humor- 
ist, to  announce  some  definite  topic  as  the 
subject  of  his  lecture,  and  not  to  refer  to  it 
again  after  the  first  sentence  of  his  speech. 
He  would  say,  "  My  subject  to-night  is  Africa, 
Speaking  of  Africa  reminds  me  of  a  story." 
The  first  story  would  suggest  a  second,  the 
second  a  third,  and  the  entire  hour  would 
pass  in  story-telling.  What  Artemus  \\"ard 
did  intentionally  is  very  like  what  many  writers 
do  unintentionally.  They  begin  to  pursue  a 
definite  chain  of  thought  to  a  definite  conclu- 
sion, but  "speaking  of  Africa"  or  of  some- 
thing else  suggests  to  them  an  interesting 
side-thought,  and  they  stray  far  from  the  real 
topic. 

Now,  it  is  not  necessarily  a  bad  thing  "to 
be  reminded  "  in  this  way  of  many  things ;  it 
is  far  better  to  have  side-thoughts  than  no 
thoughts  at  all.  Professor  William  James 
declares    that    one's    mind    may   be    "scatter- 


106      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

brained"  and   yet   do   much   good   work.     He 
says  in  substance  :  — 

Some  of  us  are  naturally  scatter-hi'ained,  and  others 
follow  easily  a  train  of  connected  thoughts  without  temp- 
tation to  swerve  aside  to  other  subjects.  .  .  .  Some  of 
the  most  efficient  workers  I  know  are  of  the  scatter- 
brained type.  One  friend,  who  does  a  prodigious  quan- 
tity of  work,  has  in  fact  confessed  to  me  that  if  he  wants 
to  get  ideas  on  any  subject  he  sits  down  to  work  at 
something  else,  his  best  results  coming  through  his  mind 
wanderings.  This  is  perhaps  an  .  .  .  exaggeration  on 
his  part ;  bat  I  seriously  think  that  no  one  of  us  need  be 
too  much  distressed  at  his  own  short-comings  in  this 
regard.  Our  mind  may  enjoy  but  little  comfort,  may  be 
restless  and  feel  confused,  but  it  nuiy  be  extremely  effi- 
cient, all  the  same.  —  William  James  :  Talks  to  Teachers 
on  Psychology. 

True  as  this  undoubtedly  is,  it  is  important 
for  a  wiiter  to  be  able  to  see  when  he  is  intro- 
ducing matter  that  has  nothinof  to  do  with  the 
subject  in  hand.  Examine  the  following  pas- 
sage, and  explain  wliy  the  sentence  bracketed 
does  not  belono-  in  the  chain  of  thouo-ht.  The 
passage  itself  is  from  some  remarks  made 
by  Mr.  Edison,  the  inventor.  The  sentences 
bracketed  are  not  Mr.  Edison's,  but  are  in- 
serted to  show  how  a  less  logical  mind  than 
Edison's  would  have  strayed  away  at  a  certain 
point. 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  107 

THE   DIFFERENCE   BETWEEN   DISCOVERY    AND 
INVENTION 

A  discovery  is  more  or  less  in  the  nature  of  an  acci- 
dent. A  man  walks  along  the  road  intending  to  catch 
the  train.  On  the  way  his  foot  kicks  against  something, 
and  looking  down  to  see  what  he  has  hit,  he  sees  a  gold 
bracelet  embedded  in  the  dust.  He  has  discovered  that, 
certainly  not  invented  it.  He  did  not  set  out  to  find  a 
bracelet,  yet  the  value  of  it  is  just  as  great  to  him  at  the 
moment  as  if,  after  long  years  of  study,  he  had  invented 
a  machine  for  making  a  gold  bracelet  out  of  common 
road  metal.  Goodyear  discovered  the  way  to  make  hard 
rubber.  He  was  at  work  experimenting  with  india-rub- 
ber, and  quite  by  chance  he  hit  upon  a  process  which 
hardened  it  —  the  last  result  in  the  world  that  he  wished 
or  expected  to  attain.  [He  accidentally  dropped  on  the 
stove  a  piece  of  rubber  which  had  been  treated  with  sul- 
phur. The  rubber  shrivelled,  but  was  not  at  all  softened. 
Imagine  his  delight,  for  at  tliis  time  he  had  hardly  a  cent 
in  the  world.  He  had  in  vain  tramped  about  from  place 
to  place  trying  to  get  capital  with  which  to  make  his 
various  discoveiies  useful.  Even  now  he  could  not  make 
immediate  use  of  this  most  important  of  them  all. 
Before  he  secured  the  means  to  manufactm-e  hard  rub- 
ber he  went  through  a  liitter  struggle  with  poverty. 
One  of  his  children  died,  and  he  found  that  he  had 
money  neither  to  pay  the  funeral  expenses  nor  to  supply 
food  for  the  immediate  needs  of  the  rest  of  the  family.] 
In  a  discovery  there  must  be  an  element  of  the  acciden- 
tal and  an  important  one,  too,  while  an  invention  is 
purely  deductive. ^     In  my  own  case  but  few,  and  those 

1  Mr.  Edison  here  uses  deductive  to  mean  "attained  by 
reasoning." 


108    A  Finsr  majvual  of  composition 

the   least   important,   of   my  iiiveutioiis  owed  anything 
to  accident. 

Read  aloud  the  following-  passage,  and  say 
at  what  point  there  is  a  departure  from  the 
chain  of  thouofht  announced  in  the  title. 

Ericsson's  monitor,  and  its  influence 

The  Monitor  was  the  second  iron-clad  ever  built.  It 
was  invented  to  meet  the  first  iron-clad,  the  Confeder- 
ate gun-boat  ]\ferrimac.  It  was  invented  by  a  Swedish- 
American,  John  Ericsson,  who  was  one  of  the  most  studi- 
ous inventors  who  ever  lived,  it  being  his  habit  for 
twenty  years  to  work  at  his  desk  for  ten  hours  a  day,  on 
two  simple  meals,  the  first  of  which  invariably  consisted 
of  brown-bread  and  eggs,  the  second  of  brown-bread, 
vegetables,  and  chops  or  steak.  It  defeated  the  Merri- 
mac,  and  brought  about  a  new  era  in  naval  warfare.  It 
introduced  the  use  of  the  turret,  and  the  turreted  battle- 
ship has  become  the  most  important  engine  of  war.  The 
influence  of  sea-power  on  civilization  is  sure  to  be  im- 
mense. It  may  therefore  be  that  Ericsson  will  influence 
the  world's  politics  as  much  as  Bismarck  has  done. 

Read  aloud  the  following  paragraph,  and 
say  what  thoughts  are  irrelevant  to  the  subject. 
Irrelevant  means  "  not  helping,"  that  is,  not 
helping  toward  the  intended  conclusion. 

Bryant's  mode  of  life 

The  poet  Bryant  told  i\Ir.  Blaikie,  the  writer  on  athlet- 
ics, that  his  morning  routine  was  as  follows.  He  rose 
early,  and  for  a  full  hour  practised  gymnastics    in    his 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  109 

room.  The  chief  object  of  these  exercises  was  to  develop 
the  chest  and  trunk.  After  breakfast,  rain  or  shine,  he 
walked  down  to  the  Eveninr/  Post  building,  a  distance  of 
nearly  three  miles.  There  Bryant  worked  at  his  editorial 
labors  day  by  day  for  many  years.  It  is  remarkable  that 
a  man  of  so  j^oetic  a  mind  could  give  himself  so  steadily 
to  the  business  of  writing  editorials  on  political  ques- 
tions. There  were  two  men  in  Bryant:  one  was  the 
Bryant  who  sang  of  the  delicate  beauty  of  the  yellow 
violet,  and  one  was  the  philosophical  critic  of  American 
politics.  After  his  day's  work  was  done,  the  poet-editor 
walked  back  to  his  lodgings.  During  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  Bryant  spent  much  time  at  his  summer  home  on 
Long  Island.  Here  he  gave  the  same  careful  attention 
to  his  health,  spending  much  time  in  the  open  air,  at 
gardening  or  caring  for  his  trees. 

Exercise  94.  QOral.)  To  understand  what 
is  meant  by  reasoning  from  general  to  particular. 
—  We  are  all  familiar  with  many  general  prin- 
ciples ;  we  use  them  as  rules  every  day  of  our 
lives.  We  say  to  ourselves,  "  Early  to  bed  and 
early  to  rise,"  etc.,  and  apply  this  maxim  of 
Benjamin  Franklin  to  particular  individuals, 
usually  not  ourselves.  What  goes  on  in  the 
mind  is  something  like  this :  "  People  who  go 
to  bed  early  and  get  up  early  ai'e  generally 
healthy,  wealthy,  and  wise ;  therefore  you,  my 
friend,  will  be  healthy,  wealthy,  and  wise  if 
you  retire  early  and  rise  early."  We  reason 
from  the  general  rule  to  the  particular  instance. 


110      A   FIB  ST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

This  kind  of  reasoning  is  called  deductive.  In 
a  deductive  paragraph  the  topic  is  a  general 
principle,  and  the  conclusion  is  the  application 
of  the  principle  to  one  or  more  individuals. 
Examples :  — 

All  visible  bodies  shine  by  their  own  or  by  reflected 
light.  The  moon  does  not  shine  by  its  own.  Tlierefore 
it  shines  by  reflected  light.  But  tlie  sun  shines  by  its 
own  light.  Therefore  it  cannot  shine  Ity  reflected  ligiit. 
—  Hyslop  :  Elements  of  Lo[/ic  (adapted). 

He  who  bears  arms  at  the  command  of  the  magistrate 
does  what  is  lawful  for  a  Christian.  The  Swiss  in  the 
French  service,  and  the  British  in  the  American  service, 
bore  arms  at  the  command  of  the  magistrate.  Therefore 
they  did  what  was  lawful  for  a  Christian.  —  Hyslop: 
Elements  of  Logic  (adapted). 

What  inferences  may  properly  be  made  from 
the  following  general  principles  ? 

1.  The  smi  has  always  risen  every  morning  since  men 
knew  anything  about  it.    Therefore  in  all  probability  .  ,  . 

2.  jVIost  people  are  homely.     Therefore  .  .  . 

3.  Most  people  need  to  go  to  church.     Therefore  .  .  . 

4.  Tol)acco  is  a  poison.     Therefore  .  .  . 

•5.  Every  green  ajiple  I  have  seen  was  sour,  and  i:)rob- 
ably  unwholesome.     Therefore  I  will  .  .  . 

Exercise  95.  (Oral.)  To  understand  what 
is  meant  by  reasoning  from  particular  to  general. 
—  If,  on  seeing  a  crow  for  the  first  time,  one 


THE  LOGICAL   PABAGEAPH  111 

should  exclaim  "  Ah !  so  crows  are  black !  " 
he  would  be  reasoning  from  a  particular  truth 
about  one  crow  to  a  general  conclusion  about  all 
crows.  He  would  be  inferring  a  general  prin- 
ciple by  induction;  he  would  be  using  the  in- 
ductive method.  To  be  sure,  he  would  be 
using  it  rather  badly,  for  it  is  hardly  a  safe 
thing  to  draw  a  conclusion  from  only  one  par- 
ticular. There  are  occasionally  such  things  as 
white  crows,  and,  happening  on  such  an  one, 
our  philosopher  might  have  been  unlucky 
enough  to  say  "  Ah  !    so  crows  are  white  !  " 

What  general  conclusion  is  reached  by  the 
inductive  method  in  the  following  paragraph? 

DO   EARTHWORMS    DRAW    LEAVES    INTO    THEIR 
BURROWS    BY    CHANCE    METHODS? 

In  the  first  place  2-27  withered  leaves  of  various  kinds, 
mostly  of  English  plants,  were  pnlled  out  of  worm-bur- 
rows in  several  places.  Of  these,  181  had  been  drawn 
into  the  burrows  by  or  near  their  tips,  so  that  the  foot- 
stalk projected  nearly  upright  from  the  mouth  of  the 
burrow;  20  had  been  drawn  in  by  theii-  bases,  and  in 
this  case  the  tips  projected  from  the  burrows;  and  26 
had  been  seized  near  tlie  middle,  so  that  these  had  been 
drawn  in  transversely  and  were  much  crumpled.  Tliere- 
fore  80  per  ceiit  (always  using  the  nearest  whole  number) 
had  been  drawn  in  by  the  tip,  9  per  cent  by  the  liase  or 
footstalk,  and  11  per  cent  transversely  or  by  the  middle. 
This  alone  is  almost  sufficient  to  show  that  chance  does 


112      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

not  determine  the  manner  in  which  leaves  are  dragged 
into  the  burrows.  —  Charles  Dakwin  :  Vegetable  Mould 
and  Earthworms. 

In  the  preceding  selection  the  general  con- 
clusion stands  last.  In  the  following  selection 
it  stands  first.  The  author,  the  eminent  natu- 
ralist Darwin,  is  quite  sure  of  his  conclusion  ; 
and  so  lie  speaks  out,  as  most  people  do,  before 
he  tells  us  the  particular  facts  which  led  him 
to  the  conclusion. 

DO    EAKTHWTJKMS    HEAR? 

Worms  do  not  possess  any  sense  of  hearing.  They 
took  not  the  least  notice  of  the  shrill  notes  from  a  metal 
whistle,  which  was  repeatedly  sounded  near  them;  nor 
did  they  of  the  deepest  and  loudest  tones  of  a  bassoon. 
They  were  indifferent  to  shouts,  if  care  was  taken  tliat 
the  breath  did  not  strike  them.  When  placed  on  a  table 
close  to  the  keys  of  a  piano,  which  was  played  as  loudly 
as  possible,  they  remained  perfectly  (puet.  —  Il/id. 

Sometimes  one  order  is  preferable,  sometimes 
the  other.  Perhaps  the  reversed  inductive  order 
is  the  more  common.  Which  order  suspends 
the  reader's  attention,  ^  the  inductive  or  the 
reversed  inductive  ? 

State  the  topic  and  the  general  conclusion  of 

each  of  the  following  paragraphs  :  — 

1.  The  late  Georg  Ebers.  the  Egyptologist  and  novel- 
writer,  was  a  lifelong  invalid  and  crijiiile,  who  had  to  be 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  113 

wheeled  about  in  a  chair  whenever  he  moved  from  place 
to  place.  Yet  lie  wns  one  of  the  most  productive  workers 
of  the  age.  If  one  so  handicapped  can  do  so  much, 
ordinary  men  should  not  despair  of  achievement. 

2.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Edward  Tln-ing',  head- 
master of  the  Uppingham  School,  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment said  to  his  biographer  :  "  Thring  was  the  first  man 
in  England  to  assert  openly  that  a  dull  boy  luis  as  much 
right  as  a  bright  boy  to  liave  his  power,  such  as  it  is, 
fully  trained,  and  that  no  school  does  honest  work  which 
does  not  recognize  this  truth  as  the  basis  of  its  working- 
arrangements.  For  showing  this,  Thring  seems  to  me 
the  most  remarkable  Christian  nuxn  of  this  generation." 

—  Adapted  from  The  Youth's  Companion. 

3.  Tiie  lads  of  Druniniondville,  wlio  went  in  swinnning 
at  a  place  not  a  quarter  of  a  mile  above  Niagara  falls, 
were  carried  far  down  by  a  furious  current,  and  escaped 
only  by  skilfully  getting  into  the  foot  of  an  eddy  wliich 
swept  them  up-river  to  a  point  nearly  opposite  where  tliey 
had  started.  That  they  made  a  habit  of  bathing  under 
these  circumstances  shows  the  fooUiardiness  of  boyhood. 

—  Adapted  from  The  Youth's  Companion. 

In  the  present  manual,  wliicli  method  are  we 
following  when  we  revise  in  the  light  of  a  given 
conclusion?  Which  method  do  we  mostly  em- 
ploy in  proceeding  from  topic  to  conclusion,  as 
in  Exercise  83? 

Read  each  of  the  following  passages  aloud:  — 

1.    Professor  Drummond  saw  at  a  fair  a  glass  model  of 
a  famous  mine.     The  owner  drove  a  tunnel  a  mile  long 
through  the  strata  he  thought  contained  gold,  spent  one 
I 


114      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSiriON 

hundred  thousand  dolhirs  on  it,  and  in  a  year  and  a  lialf 
had  failed  to  tind  tlie  gold.  Another  company  drove  the 
tunnel  a  yard  farther  and  struck  ore.  —  O.  S.  Marden: 
The  Secret  of  Achievement. 

2.  Once  this  ha^ipened  to  me,  that  a  great  fierce  ol)du- 
rate  crowd  were  pushing  up  in  long  line  towards  a  door 
which  was  to  lead  them  to  some  good  thing ;  and  I,  not 
liking  the  crowd,  stole  out  of  it,  having  made  up  my 
mind  to  be  last,  and  was  leaning  indolently  against  a 
closed-up  side  door,  when,  all  of  a  sudden,  this  door 
opened,  and  T  was  the  first  to  walk  in,  and  saw  arrive 
long  after  nie,  the  ]nen  who  had  been  thrusting  and 
struggling  round  me.  This  does  not  often  happen  in  the 
world,  but  I  think  there  was  a  meaning  in  it.  —  Sir 
Arthur  Helps. 

3.  It  is  reported  that,  once  upon  a  time,  the  Emperor 
of  all  the  Rnssias,  having  heard  that  Great  Britain  w^as 
interpf)sing  a  barrier  against  some  of  his  schemes,  called 
for  a  map,  and  in  his  ])rivate  study  searched  it  diligently 
for  the  obnoxious  land.  He  saw  his  own  vast  territories 
stretching  away  in  gorgeous  yellow  across  two  continents ; 
but  nowhere  could  he  descry  that  other  countrj^  which  he 
understood  to  be  by  preeminence  denominated  "Great." 
Wearied  with  his  seai'ch,  the  royal  scholar  called  in  his 
secretary,  and  demaiuled  of  him  where  Great  Britain  lay 
on  the  map.  "  Please,  your  Alajesty,"  that  functionary 
replied,  "  your  thumb  is  on  it." 

State  certain  moral  truths  which  may  be 
drawn  as  conclusions  from  the  passages  given 
above.  Which  was  better — to  state  these  con- 
clusions or  to  allow  tJie  reader  to  infer  them? 
Would  it  be  safe  to  reason  from  these  facts  that 


THE  LOGICAL    PARAGRAPH  115 

moral  truths  should  never  be  spoken  out  strongly 
and  directly  ? 

Exercise  96.    (^OraL~)     The   first  caution  to 

observe  in  reasoning   to   a  general   conclusion.  — 

There  are  two  types  of  good  students.  There 
is  the  quick  good  student,  and  there  is  the 
slow  good  student.  The  quick  student  is  his 
teacher's  joy  when  he  promptly  answers  right, 
and  his  teacher's  mortification  when  he  promptly 
answers  wrong.  The  slow  student  is  his  teach- 
er's mortification  when  he  can't  answer  at  all, 
and  his  teacher's  joy  wdien,  after  everybody 
else  has  failed,  he  comes  slowly  along  with  the 
right  conclusion.  Now,  neither  of  these  ex- 
tremes is  the  best  student,  but  usually  the  slow 
is  the  safer.  This  will  l)e  seen  in  after  years. 
He  will  not  save  a  life  or  a  fortune  by  a  sud- 
den calculation  of  possibilities ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  will  not  rush  into  dangerous 
places  impulsively,  nor  make  a  quick  miscalcu- 
lation and  bring  disaster  upon  many.  Let  us 
see  why  he  is  the  safer.  Watch  the  mental 
process  of  the  two.  The  teacher  asks,  "  Which 
way  shall  we  arrange  the  desks,  so  as  to  bring 
our  right  sides  or  our  left  sides  toward  tlie 
window?"     The   quick   boy   perhaps  answers, 


116      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

"The  right."  The  teacher  asks,  "Why?" 
The  quick  boy  replies,  "  So  that  we  may  see 
that  nice  picture  when  we  write."  The  teacher 
says  nothing,  but  smiles  and  frowns  both  at 
once.  Another  quick  boy  immediately  volun- 
teers, "  Why,  when  we  are  writing  we  can't 
look  at  the  picture."  Everybody  laughs,  but 
still  the  teacher  says  nothing.  Another  quick 
boy  assumes  from  her  look  that  the  answer 
should  be,  "  The  left,"  or  rather,  "  The  light 
should  come  from  the  left " ;  accordingly  he 
makes  this  answer.  When  the  teacher  asks 
"Why?"  he  says  readily  enough,  "I  have 
always  heard  that  the  light  should  come  over 
the  left  shoulder."  This  boy  has  done  even 
less  thinking  than  the  first  one,  who  wanted  to 
have  the  picture  in  view.  All  the  time,  how- 
ever, one  of  the  slow  I)oys  has  deliberately  been 
remembering  how  light  acts  when  it  comes  from 
the  left,  and  how  it  acts  when  it  comes  from 
the  right ;  he  has  been  sitting  still,  perhaps  with 
closed  eyes,  and  imagining  liis  own  hand  on  the 
desk,  with  the  light  coming  now  from  the  one 
side,  now  from  the  other.  Presently  he  holds 
up  his  hand,  and  gets  a  nod.  "  It  seems  to  me 
that  if  the  light  comes  from  the  right,  it  will 
cast  the  shadow  of  my  hand  on  the  paper  and 


THE  LOGICAL   PAEAQRAPII  117 

bother  me ;  so  I  think  it  ought  to  come  from 
the  left."  Everybody  agrees  at  once,  and.  slow- 
boy  is  the  subject  of  envy.^ 

You  see  that  the  slow  boy  remembers  more 
things  than  the  quick  boy ;  he  lingers  over  his 
facts,  and  takes  them  all  into  account.  If  now 
he  is  not  so  slow  that  he  sees  only  the  images 
in  his  mind,  and  fails  to  draw  any  conclusion, 
he  is  a  better  student  than  his  quick  friend  who 
makes  '"•  hasty  generalizations."'  The  slow  boy- 
will  stick  to  his  facts,  and  if  he  is  also  an  ener- 
getic boy  he  will  collect  a  great  many  facts. 
He  will  observe,  observe,  observe.     lie  will,  at 

1  The  difference  between  the  hasty  mind  and  the  careful 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  anecdote,  adapted  from 
the  Cleveland  Plain  Dealer :  — 

At  an  evening  party  one  of  the  gentlemen  said,  "  I  don't 
believe  we  appreciate  what  a  steady  old  slow-coach  the 
human  brain  is.  Notwithstanding  all  our  talk  about  quick 
wits  and  flashes  of  intelligence,  the  brain  is  not  so  easily 
thrown  from  its  accustomed  ruts.  If,  for  instance,  I  ask  a 
question  which  is  entirely  new  to  you,  but  which  your  honest 
old  brain  mistakes  for  a  query  tjuite  similar  in  construction, 
it  will  go  riglit  ahead  and  telegraph  the  wrong  reply." 

"That  sounds  interesting,"  said  one  of  the  guests,  '-but 
show  us  an  example." 

"  I  will,"  said  the  first  speaker,  "  on  the  condition  that 
you  answer  it  pnnnptly."  He  smiled,  and  then,  without  any 
haste,  (juietly  asked,  "  Who  saved  the  life  of  Pocahontas  ?  " 

"John  Smith  !  "  roared  twenty  voices. 

"  You  see,"  said  the  questioner. 


118      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

least  in  this  one  matter  of  method,  take  the 
great  naturalist  Darwin  for  an  ideal.  Darwin 
had  a  wonderful  gift  of  drawing  conclusions, 
but  he  had  a  still  more  wonderful  honesty ;  for 
he  would  draw  no  conclusion  from  insufficient 
data.    Read  again  the  anecdote  on  pages  73-74. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  96 :  Make  your  obser- 
vations as  many  as  possible  before  dravring  a  con- 
clusion. 

Exercise   07.    ( OralJ)    To  practise  reasoning 

from    observed    data.  —  Examine    tlie    following 

subjects  and  say  whether  you  have  personally 

observed  enough  facts  in  regard  to  any  of  them 

to  entitle  you  to  an  opinion  on  it. 

(1)  Do  animals  reason?  (2)  Do  ants  work  for  several 
hours  without  rest?  (o)  Does  clew  fall?  (4)  Are 
pickled  limes  liked  by  many  girls?  (5)  Is  it  beneficial  to 
most  people  to  take  a  cold  bath  daily  ?  (6)  Ought  depart- 
ment stores  to  be  prohibited  ?  (7)  Do  fish  hear  noises  ? 
(8)  Do  woodpeckers  drink  sap?  (9)  Ought  a  boy  of 
fourteen  to  choose  all  his  own  subjects  of  study  ?  (10)  Is 
it  safe  for  one  to  sit  down  to  table  with  twelve  others  ? 

Do  you  think  the  conclusions  of  the  following 
selections  sound  ?     Wliy  ? 

1.  Cai-lyle  says  with  grim  humor,  "  The  richer  the 
nature,  the  harder  and  slower  its  development.  Two 
boys  were  once  members  of  a  class  in  the  Edinburgh 
Grammar  School :    John,  ever  trim,  precise,  and  a  dux  ;  i 

1  A  "  dux  "  is  British  school-boy  slang  for  a  leader  in  his 
studies. 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  119 

Walter,  ever  slovenly,  confused,  and  a  dolt.  In  due 
time  John  became  Bailie  John,  of  Hunter  Square,  and 
Walter  became  Sir  Walter  Scott,  of  the  universe.  The 
quickest   and   conipletest   of   all   vegetables  is  the   cab- 


2.  We  observe  very  frequently  that  very  poor  hand- 
writing characterizes  the  manuscripts  of  able  men,  while 
the  best  handwriting  is  as  frequent  with  those  who  do 
little  mental  work  when  compared  witli  those  whose  pen- 
manship is  poor.  JNIay  we,  therefore,  infer  that  poor 
penmanship  is  caused  by  the  influence  of  severe  mental 
labor?  —  Hyslop  :    The  Elc/nents  of  Lor/ic  (adapted). 

Do  you  judge   from  the  following  that  Mr. 

Burroughs  believes    the  doctrine  that   animals 

reason? 

The  last  nest  of  the  golden-crowned  thrush  I  found 
while  in  search  of  the  pink  cypripedium.  I  suddenly 
spied  a  couple  of  the  flowers  a  few  steps  from  the  path 
along  which  I  was  walking,  and  had  stooped  to  admire 
them,  when  out  sprang  the  bird  from  beside  them,  doubt- 
less thinking  she  was  the  subject  of  observation  instead 
of  the  flowers  that  swung  their  purple  bells  but  a  foot  or 
two  above  her.  She  had  found  a  rent  in  the  matted 
carpet  of  dry  leaves  and  pine  needles  that  covered  the 
ground,  and  into  this  had  insinuated  her  nest,  tlie  leaves 
and  needles  forming  a  canopy  above  it  sloping  to  the  south. 
and  tvesf,  the  soiu'ce  of  the  more  frequent  summer  rains. 
—  John  Burroughs. 

EXEKCISE  98.  ((9m?.)  The  second  caution 
to  observe  in  reasoning  to  a  general  conclusion.  — 

If  several  tilings  are    alikcs  it    is    fortunate    if 
somebody  finds  out  the  respect  in  which  tliey 


120      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

are  alike,  for  an  important  general  truth  may 
underlie  the  resemblance.  We  owe  lightning 
rods  and  probably  electric  lights  to  the  fact 
that  Benjamin  Franklin  conld  see  resemblances, 
or,  as  they  are  often  called,  analogies.  Read 
aloud  the  following  memoranda  from  Franklin's 
journal,  where  they  appeared  November  7, 1749. 
Then  supply  at  the  end  a  sentence  stating  what 
seems  to  you  a  reasonable  conclusion  to  the 
chain  of  analos^ies. 

Electrical  fluid  agrees  with  lightning  in  the  follow- 
ing particulars:  1,  giving  light;  2,  color  of  the  light; 
3,  crooked  direction ;  4,  swift  motion ;  5,  being  conducted 
by  metals;  6,  crack  or  noise  in  exploding;  7,  subsisting 
in  water  or  ice ;  8,  rending  bodies  it  passes  through ; 
9,  destroying  animals;  10,  melting  metals;  11,  firing 
inflammable  substances  ;  12,  sulphurous  smell. 

The  electrical  fluid  is  attracted  by  points. 

Point  out  resemblances,  and  say  wdiether 
they  are  significant  or  insignificant,  between: 
(1)  oil  and  water;  (2)  a  cat  and  a  tiger; 
(3)  a  dog  and  a  wolf  :  (4)  a  bear  and  a  raccoon  ; 
(5)  the  English  word  "•  cold  "  and  the  Italian 
word  '•'•caldo,'''''^  meaning  warm  ;  (6)  a  leaf  and  a 
petal ;  (7)  sleep  and  death ;  (8)  cheerfulness 
and  light ;  (9)  sincerity  and  a  brook.     How  do 

1  Caldo  is  underscored  in  manuscript  and  printed  in  italics 
because  it  is  a  foreign  word. 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  121 

the  resemblances  noted  in   (8)  and  (9)    differ 
in  kind  from  those  noted  before  ? 

Of  course  there  is  always  danger  of  mistaking 
an  insignificant  resemblance  for  one  that  is 
I'eally  significant.  The  baby  notes  that  the  sun- 
light is  pretty  and  the  candle-flame  is  pretty, 
and  thinks  that  because  he  may  reach  out  his 
hands  safely  to  one  he  may  to  the  other.  He 
has  not  wit  enough  to  bring  his  finger  slowly 
toward  the  flame,  observing  hy  e.rperhnent 
whether  tlie  feeling  of  heat  increases.  Every 
guess  at  truth  is  valuable,  because  it  may  be 
right ;  but  it  is  valuable  chiefly  as  a  basis 
of  experiment.  Where  we  cannot  experiment 
we  must  be  extremely  cautious  about  assert- 
ing. Examine  the  following  selections  to  see 
whether  either  furnishes  enough  evidence  to 
base  a  conclusion  on  :  — 

1.  We  should  tliiiik  it  a  sin  and  shame  if  a  great 
steamer,  dashing  across  the  ocean,  were  not  brought  to  a 
stop  at  a  signal  of  distress  from  the  mere  smack.  .  .  . 
And  yet  a  miner  is  entombed  alive,  a  painter  falls  from 
a  scaffold,  a  brakeman  is  crushed  in  coupling  cars,  a 
merchant  fails,  falls  ill,  and  dies,  and  organized  society 
leaves  widow  and  child  to  bitter  want  or  degrading- 
alms. —  Georoe  :  Protection  and  Free  Trade,  quoted  by 
Creighton  :  Inlroducluri/  Lof/ic. 

2.  We  may  observe  a  very  great  similitude  between 
this    earth   which   we   inhabit    and    the   other  planets, 


122       A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Venus,  and  Mercury.  They  all 
revolve  round  the  sun,  as  the  earth  does,  although  at 
different  distances  and  in  different  periods.  They 
borrow  all  their  light  from  the  sun,  as  the  earth  does. 
Several  of  them  are  known  to  revolve  round  their  axis 
like  tiie  earth,  and  by  that  means  have  like  succession  of 
day  and  night.  Some  of  them  have  moons,  that  serve  to 
give  them  light  in  the  absence  of  the  sun,  as  our  moon 
does  to  us.  They  are  all,  in  their  motions,  subject  to  the 
same  law  of  gravitation  as  the  earth  is.  From  all  simili- 
tude it  is  not  unreasonable  to  think  that  these  planets 
may,  like  our  earth,  be  the  habitation  of  various  orders 
of  living  creatures.  —  Reid,  quoted  by  Minto  :  Logic. 

The  importance  of  noting  differences  as  well 
as  resemblances  is  very  great.  State  any  dif- 
ferences you  have  ever  noted  between :  (1)  edi- 
ble and  poisonous  mushrooms ;  (2)  true  and 
counterfeit  notes ;  (3)  true  and  counterfeit 
coin;  (4)  doughnuts  and  crullers;  (5)  ciga- 
rette smokers  and  abstainers  from  tobacco ; 
(6)  a  student  working  after  a  heavy  lunch,  and 
a  student  working  after  a  light  lunch;  (7)  a 
boy  who  Ijlacks  the  heels  of  his  shoes,  and  one 
who  does  not. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  98 :  Make  guesses 
freely  from  resemblances  and  differences,  but  come  to 
no  conclusion  before  testing  them  by  experiment. 

Remember  that  experiment  does  not  necessa- 
rily mean  tr^dng  the  guess  by  a  dangerous  ven- 
ture on  your  own  part. 


THE  LOGICAL    PARAGEAPH  123 

Exercise  99.  (Oral.)  The  third  caution  to 
observe  in  reasoning  to  a  general  conclusion. — 
Read  aloud  the  following  passage  :  — 

Kenelni  Digby's  treatment  of  wounds  was  to  apply  an 
ointment,  not  to  the  wound  itself,  but  to  the  sword  that 
had  inflicted  it,  to  dress  this  carefully  at  regular  inter- 
vals, and  in  the  meantime,  having  bound  up  the  wound, 
to  leave  it  alone  for  seven  days.  It  was  ol)served  that 
many  cures  followed  upon  this  treatment.  —  IIibben  : 
Inductive  Logic. 

Did  the  cures  follow  hecause  of  the  treatment  ? 
Black  cats  are  often  seen  (in  neighborhoods 
where  there  are  a  good  many),  and  sometimes 
people  who  see  black  cats  are  fortunate  on  the 
same  day.  Have  we  a  right  to  infer  that  the 
good  fortune  follows  hecause  of  the  black  cat? 
Merchants  sometimes  place  a  horseshoe  over 
the  door,  and  after  that  they  make  money. 
Are  we  warranted  in  thinking  that  the  money- 
making  results  from  the  horseshoe  ?  Black- 
smiths make  horseshoes,  and  afterward  some 
lose  their  money.  Do  they  lose  their  money 
hecause  making  horseshoes  earned  it? 

Yet  when  the  same  event  regularly  happens 
after  a  given  event,  the  case  should  be  looked 
into  ;  for  the  second  event  may  l)e  caused  by 
the  first.      If  a  person  has  "  heart  burn  "  every 


124       A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

time  he  eats  a  radish,  he  may  properly  suspect 
that  the  radish  is  the  cause;  and  if  by  experi- 
ment he  observes  that,  whereas  a  dinner  with  a 
radish  gives  him  trouble  afterward,  exactly  the 
same  dinner  without  the  radish  gives  him  no 
trouble,  he  may  begin  to  feel  pretty  sure  of  the 
guilt  of  the  radish.  Of  course  there  may  pos- 
sibly be  some  cause  of  "heart  burn"  other  than 
the  dinner  ;  a  cigarette,  for  instance,  will  pro- 
duce all  the  bad  effects  produced  by  a  radish  — 
to  say  nothing  of  other  effects. 

Read  the  following  paragraph  sentence  by 
sentence,  and  say  whether  the  causes  given 
seem  to  you  equal  to  producing  the  results 
ascribed  to  them :  — 

THE  strp:ngth  of  earthworms 

One  stone  which  liad  been  dragged  over  the  gravel-walk 
to  the  mouth  of  a  bin-row  weighed  two  ounces ;  and  this 
proves  how  sti'ong  worms  are.  But  they  show  greater 
strength  in  sometimes  displacing  stones  in  a  well-trodden 
gravel-walk  ;  that  they  do  so,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
cavities  i  left  by  the  displaced  stones  being  exactly  filled 
by  those  lying  over  the  mouths  of  adjoining  burrows,  as 
I  have  myself  observed.  —  Dakwix  :  Vegetable  Mould  and 
Earthworms. 

1  Darwin  makes  his  inference  from  the  fact  of  the  cavities' 
being  tilled.  Logically  he  ouglit  to  have  written  cavities'' 
witli  an  apostrophe.  But  in  England  little  stress  is  laid  on 
the  distinction. 


THE  LOGICAL    PAliAGRAPH  125 

Was  Darwin  convinced  by  the  great  number 
of  times  that  a  given  event  followed,  or  by 
the  importance  of  a  few  single  events? 

Read  the  instances  given  below,  and  express 
your  opinion  as  to  the  real  causes  of  the  facts 
mentioned. 

1.  It  is  not  safe  to  eat  baked  a[iples  after  a  hearty 
supper;  for  a  man  who  was  in  tlie  liabit  of  doing  so 
always  suffered  from  indigestion. 

2.  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre  said:  "Wherever  fleas 
are  tliey  jump  on  white  colors.  This  instinct  has  been 
given  them,  because  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  catch  them." 

3.  At  a  certain  seacoast  town  it  was  noted  that  at 
the  arrival  of  ships  nearly  everybody  caught  cold,  and  it 
was  generally  believed  that  the  arrival  of  ships  produced 
the  disease.  A  certain  physician  declared  that  the  colds 
were  due,  not  to  the  mere  arrival  of  ships,  Init  to  some 
contagion  from  the  many  foreigners.  It  was  also  noticed 
at  a  later  date  tliat  ships  could  not  ari'ive  at  this  port  ex- 
cept when  tlie  wind  was  from  the  noi'tlieast. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  99  :  Do  not  mistake 
what  happens  to  follow  for  v^hat  results. 

Exercise  100.  (^Oral.)  The  fourth  caution  to 
observe   in   reasoning   to   a  general    conclusion.  — 

Say  exactly  what  each  of  these  words  means,  — 
if  you  can :  fair.  Christian,  democratic,  liberty, 
free-will. 

Many  words,  as  you  see,  are  ca[)able  of  sev- 
eral  interpretations ;    they  are    ambiguous^  this 


126      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

word  signifying  "  possessed  of  more  than  one 
meaning."  It  is  likely  that  our  chain  of  rea- 
soning will  lead  to  a  wrong  conclusion  unless 
we  give  the  reader  to  understand  what  some 
important  word  we  use  means  to  us. 

Discuss  with  the  members  of  the  class  the 
meaning  of  the  underscored  terms  in  the  follow- 
ing resolutions :  (1)  Resolved  that  department 
stores  ought  to  be  abolished;  (2)  Resolved  that 
swearitui  is  a  worse  habit  that  lying.  (3)  Re- 
solved that  insurance  is  ganddim/. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  100  :  Do  not  use  w^ords 
•vyithout  a  clear  sense  of  their  meaning. 

Exercise  101.     (^Oral.)     How   to   frame   a 

title  for  a  paragraph  of  reasoning.  —  Every  logical 
paragraph,  like  every  other  good  composition, 
must  have  a  title.  Now,  a  title  is  a  sort  of  an 
advertisement  of  what  is  coming,  and  since  the 
final  conclusion  is  the  important  tiling  that  is 
coming,  the  title  of  a  logical  paragraph  ouglit 
to  advertise  the  conclusion.  What  do  we  mean 
by  advertise  ?  Perhaps  different  things  at  dif- 
ferent times  ;  but  it  will  nut  be  far  wrong  to 
say  that  a  title  which  is  a  genuine  advertise- 
ment rouses  the  curiosity  of  the  reader  to  learn 
the  conclusion,  gives  him  some  hint   of   what 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  127 

it  is,  and  does  not  promise  more  of  a  discus- 
sion than  really  is  to  follow.  Notice  that  this 
definition  implies  that  the  writer  has  reached 
his  conclusion  before  he  writes  his  title.  We 
shall  see  later  that  a  good  writer  tries  to  think 
out  his  conclusion  before  he  writes  either  his 
paragraph  or  its  title. 

Read  aloud  the  following  selections  and  in- 
vent a  good  title  for  each.  Let  this  be  as 
short  as  it  can  be  without  violating  the  defini- 
tion given  above.  Discuss  with  the  rest  of 
the  class  the  merits  of  different  titles  offered 
by  them. 

1.  An  art  association,  whose  purpose  is  to  beautify 
the  schoolrooms,  was  organized  a  year  ago  in  connection 
with  the  public  schools  of  a  vigorous  western  city.  Its 
first  exhibition  realized  nearly  tifteeu  hundred  dollars. 
Increased  by  the  gifts  of  various  friends,  the  fund  sufficed 
to  place  in  each  school  building  two  or  more  fine  repro- 
ductions of  famous  works  of  art. —  The  Youth's  Cum- 
jmnion. 

2.  The  reason  why  the  white  races  plume  themselves 
on  being  white,  is  probably  because  the  uncivilized  races 
of  mankind  are  all  dark-skinned,  and  some  of  them  have 
permitted  themselves  to  be  made  slaves  by  the  white. 
They  have  all,  nevertheless,  done  things  which  we  can 
but  admire,  and  the  monuments  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
and  Hindus  are  among  the  most  marvellous  works  of 
man.  We  cannot  trust  ourselves  to  decide  that  white  is 
a  better  color  than  black,  yellow,  or  brown.     It  may  be 


128      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITIOX 

so,  but  our  opinion  would  probably  be  different  if  we 
were  black,  yellow,  or  brown.  J\Ir.  Darwin,  when  among 
the  South  Sea  Islanders,  who  go  nearly  naked,  noticed 
that  a  white  man  bathing  by  the  side  of  a  Tahitian  was 
like  celery  bleached  by  the  gardener,  compared  with  a 
fine  dark  green  plant  growing  in  the  open  fields.  He 
said  it  required  little  habit  to  make  a  dark  skin  more 
pleasing  and  natural  to  the  eye  of  a  European  than  his 
own  color.  —  Wendell  Phillips  Garrison:  Parables 
Jhr  Home  a»<l  ScJu/ol. 

3.  In  a  certain  important  trial  a  lawyer  said  to  a 
woman  witness,  "  Will  you  kindly  turn  round  and  give  us 
the  benefit  of  the  light  of  your  countenance?"  The 
court  at  once  instructed  the  witness  that  she  need  not 
heed  a  request  so  worded.  Lawyers  of  a  certain  popular 
type  go  on  the  principle  that  an  opposing  witness  made 
angry  is  half-secured  for  their  side.  It  is  a  pity  that  all 
judges  do  not  frown  upon  the  practice.  —  The  Youth^s 
Companion. 

4.  One  group  in  the  sinking  Mohegan.  wrecked  on  the 
English  coast,  was  a  family  gathered  al)out  the  father, 
who  exhorted  them  to  keep  cool.  A  survivor  saw  and 
heard.  The  example  of  calm  courage  is  not  lost.  None 
of  the  family  escaped  the  sudden  and  awful  death,  but 
the  parent,  literally  dying  at  his  post  as  head  of  the 
household,  will  not  be  forgotten.  Every  instance  of  self- 
forgetfulness  in  peril  that  others  may  be  cheered  and 
saved  is  an  imperishable  portion  of  tlie  world's  highest 
wealth. —  The  Yonth^f^  Companion. 

~).  Claudius  was  a  very  large  man,  as  has  been  said,  and 
Barker  did  not  believe  it  possible  that  he  could  drag  his 
gigantic  frame  up  the  smooth  mast  beyond  the  shrouds. 
If  it  were  possible,  he  was  cpute  willing  to  pay  his  money 
to  see  him  do  it. 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  129 

Claudius  put  tlie  woollen  cap  in  his  pocket,  and  began 
the  ascent.  The  steamer,  as  has  been  said,  was  schooner- 
rigged,  with  topsail  yards  on  the  foremast,  but  there 
were  no  ratlines  in  the  main  topmast  shrouds,  which 
were  set  about  ten  feet  below  the  mast-head.  To  this 
point  Claudius  climbed  easily  enough,  using  his  arms 
and  legs  against  the  stiffened  ropes.  A  shout  from  the 
Duke  hailed  his  arrival. 

"  Now  comes  the  tug  of  war,"  said  the  Duke. 

"  He  can  never  do  it,"  said  Barker,  confidently. 

But  Barker  had  underrated  the  extraordinary  strength 
of  the  man  against  whom  he  was  betting,  and  he  did  not 
know  how  often,  when  a  boy,  Claudius  had  climbed 
higher  masts  than  those  of  the  Streak.  The  Doctor  was 
one  of  those  natural  athletes  whose  strength  does  not 
diminish  for  lack  of  exercise,  and  large  as  he  was,  and 
tall,  he  was  not  so  heavy  as  Barker  thought. 

Now  he  pulled  the  cap  out  of  his  pocket  and  held  it 
between  his  teeth,  as  he  gripped  the  smooth  wood  be- 
tween his  arms  and  hands  and  legs,  and  with  firm  and 
even  motion  he  began  to  swarm  up  the  bare  pole. 

"There  —  I  told  you  so,"  said  Barker.  Claudius  had 
slipped  nearly  a  foot  back. 

'•  He  will  do  it  yet,"  said  the  Duke,  as  the  climber 
clasped  his  mighty  liands  to  tlie  mast.  He  would  not 
slip  again,  for  his  blood  was  up,  and  he  could  almost 
fancy  his  iron  grip  pressed  deep  into  the  wood.  Slowly, 
slowly  those  last  three  feet  were  conquered,  inch  by  inch, 
and  the  broad  hand  stole  stealthily  over  the  small 
wooden  truck  at  the  topmast-head  till  it  had  a  firm 
hold  —  then  the  other,  and  with  the  two  he  raised  and 
pushed  liis  body  up  till  the  truck  was  oiiposite  his  breast. 

"Skal  to  the  Viking!"  yelled  old  Sturleson,  the 
Swedish   captain,  his    sunburnt  face   growing   red   with 

K 


130      A   FIE  ST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

triumph  as  Claudius  clapped  the  woollen  cap  over  the 
mast-head.  —  F.  Mariox  Crawford:  Doctor  Claudius. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  101  :  Let  the  title  give 
some  hint  of  the  conclusion. 

Exercise  102.  (  Oral)  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words :  seizure,  epidemic,  invisible, 
temperature,  chilliness,  languor,  prescribe,  ad- 
vantageous, remedy,  vial,  application,  adhesion, 
convalescent,  recovery,  inflammation,  acute,  ca- 
tarrh, draft,  bronchial  tubes,  nasal. 

Review  the  rules  for  spelling  under  Exercises 
31,  36,  41,  46,  56,  QQ,  71,  76,  86. 

ExETJOTSE  103.  (Written.}  Write  a  logical 
paragraph  on  the  following  subject,  ''A  Cold 
Described  and  Defined,"  using  a  part  of  the 
words  found  in  Exercise  102.  Give  a  brief 
history  of  several  colds  that  you  have  had.  Let 
your  last  sentence  begin  thus:  "From  the  fore- 
going facts  I  conclude."  Let  this  sentence  sum 
up  your  definition  of  a  cold,  including  a  theory 
as  to  how  colds  are  caught.  Revise  with  ref- 
erence to  handwriting,  spelling,  punctuation, 
and  the  use  of  conjunctions. 

Exercise  104.  {Oral.}  Define  and  spell  tlie 
following  words  :  utensil,  fragile,  indispensable. 


THE  LOGICAL  PARAGRAPH  131 

requisite,  refrigerator,  heat-producing,  farina- 
ceous, essential,  hygiene,  hygienic,  palatal )le, 
digestible,  rebellious,  cayenne,  salad,  macaroni, 
vermicelli,  cereal,  luscious,  delicacy,  recipe, 
dessert,  scrupulous,  promptitude. 

Review  the  rules  of  spelling  under  Exercises 
31,  3(3,  41,  46,  56,  ij6,  71,  76,  86. 

Exercise  105.  {Written.)  Write  a  logical 
paragraph  on  the  following  subject,  "  The 
Characteristics  of  a  Good  Cook,"  using  a  part 
of  the  words  found  in  Exercise  104.  As  you 
proceed,  give  the  reasons  why  each  new  trait 
mentioned  is  that  of  a  good  cook ;  for  example, 
"  She  does  not  make  the  dinner  all  lean  meat, 
and  the  supper  all  fat;  for  she  knows  that  the 
body  requires  at  every  meal  food  for  muscle 
and  nerves  and  bone,  as  well  as  heat-producing 
food."  Let  the  last  sentence  begin  with  "In 
brief,"  and  sum  up  the  definition  of  a  good 
cook.  Revise  with  reference  to  handwriting, 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  the  use  of  conjunc- 
tions. 

Exercise  106.  (  Oral)  Define  and  spell  the 
following  words  :  laboratory,  apparatus,  mechan- 
ism, lever,  cylinder,  stationary,  electricitj^  in- 
stantaneous, dynamos,  incandescent,   elasticity, 


132      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

flexibility,  tremendous,  observant,  accurate,  skil- 
ful, adaptable,  improvise,  efficiency,  ingenious, 
ingenuity,  apprentice,  amateur,  neatness,  lathe, 
joinings,  chisel,  mallet,  despatch. 

Review  the  rules  of  spelling  under  Exercises 
31,  36,  11,  46,  56,  GQ,  71,  76,  86. 

Exercise  107.  ( Written.')  Write  a  logical 
paragraph  on  the  following  subject,  "  What  I 
Understand  by  Success  in  Manual  Exercises," 
using  a  part  of  the  words  found  in  Exercise  106. 
As  you  make  each  statement,  give  the  reasons 
for  it.  Let  the  last  sentence  begin  with  the 
words  "In  short,"  and  let  it  sum  up  your  no- 
tions of  success  in  manual  exercises.  Revise 
with  reference  to  handwriting,  spelling,  punctu- 
ation, and  the  use  of  conjunctions. 

Exercise  108.  (Written.)  After  hearing 
the  following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning 
of  any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using  :  active,  wholesome,  regular,  pores,  sound, 
vigorous,  weakness,  defect,  spared. 

OUR  DUTY  TO  THE  NEXT  GENERATION 

If  we  wish  our  children  to  have  healthy  bodies,  we  must 
not  abuse  our  own  ;  we  must  be  well  and  strong  ourselves, 
live  as  much  as  we  can  in  the  fresh  air,  be  active  and 


THE  LOGICAL    PABAGRAPII  133 

busy,  eat  wliolesome  food,  avoid  bad  habits  of  smoking 
and  drinking,  get  all  the  sleep  we  need  and  at  regular 
hours,  take  good  care  of  our  eyes,  keep  the  pores  of  the 
skin  open  by  bathing  and  exercise.  Doing  this  we  may 
be  certain  —  not  that  our  children  will  be  as  sound  and 
vigorous  as  ourselves  ;  no,  only  certain  that  we  have  done 
our  best  for  them,  and  that  they  cannot  blame  us  for  any 
weakness  or  defect  with  which  they  were  born,  and  wliich 
might  have  been  spared  them  if  we  had  not  been  think- 
ing of  ourselves  alone.  —  Wendell  Puillii's  (Jarrison: 
Parables  for  Home  and  School. 

Exercise  109.  (Oral.^  How  to  place  modi- 
fiers logically. — It  is  not  always  an  easy  thing 
to  place  adverbs  and  adverbial  clauses  in  such 
a  position  that  there  is  chance  neither  of  mis- 
understanding nor  of  absurd  suggestion ;  but 
to  do  so  is  inq)ortant.  Head  aloud  the  follow- 
ing sentences,  and  so  change  the  order  of  words 
that  they  shall  lead  to  the  conclusions  which 
the  writers  probably  intended  :  — 

1.  They  prove  that  the  merchant  bought  the  revolver 
himself  with  which  he  was  slain  at  the  Fair  Store. 

2.  The  band  of  rescuers  reached  the  unfortunate  man 
at  ten  o'clock  this  morning  cold  in  death. 

3.  W.  P.  Lovett,  associate  editor,  replied  to  questions 
piopounded  to  him  in  a  similar  manner. 

4.  An  unknown  Russian  committed  suicide  by  shoot- 
ing at  one  of  the  roulette  tables  at  JNJonte  Carlo  yester- 
day. 

.').  In  one  evening  I  counted  twenty-seveii  meteors 
sitting  on  my  back  piazza. 


134      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

6.  Erected  to  the  memory  of  John  Phillips,  accident- 
ally shot,  as  a  mark  of  affection  by  his  brother. 

7.  I  am  sorry  to  be  obliged  to  decline  your  kind 
invitation  to  your  lovely  dinner  party,  which  owing  to 
a  dreadful  cold  in  my  head  must  be  postponed  for  futui-e 
enjoyment. 

8.  Miss  Marlowe  confessed  her  early  predilection  for 
the  circus,  and  mourned  over  the  disappearance  of  the 
red  tarletan  skirt  that  one  time  jumped  through  hoops 
until  assured  that  it  was  still  jumping. 

9.  Edward  Everett  Hale's  The  Man  Without  a  Country, 
just  republished,  has  been  called  the  best  short  story  ever 
written  by  many  competent  judges  and  enthusiasts. 

10.  A  man  perished  in  a  blizzard  that  swept  the 
streets  of  New  York  without  an  overcoat. 

11.  Dressed  in  blue,  with  closely  buttoned  coat,  by  his 
well-chosen  language,  his  graceful  figure  and  gesture, 
and  his  aggressive  way  he  carried  with  him  the  whole 
audience. 

Insert  only  in  the  proper  blank  ;  that  is,  just 
before  the  word  it  modifies  :  — 

1.  Browning wrote a  few  poems  for  boys. 

2.  She breathed the  name;  but  we  heard  it. 

3.  We received  his  letter, this  morning. 

4.  He gave five  cents to  the  church. 

Avoid  what  one  may  call  tlie  Janus-claiise ; 
the  Janus-phrase  ;  the  Janus-adverb  or  adjec- 
tive. The  Latin  god  Janus  had  two  faces,  one 
looking  back,  the  other  ahead.  Avoid  putting 
a   modifier  where   it   becomes    double-faced  — 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  135 

where  it  may  be  taken  with  either  the  preced- 
ing idea  or  with  the  following.  Better  the 
position  of  the  double-faced  modifiers  in  the 
following  sentences  :  — 

1.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  quarrelled,  —  that 
he  fought  indeed  vigorously.  lie  reappeared  at  least  with 
a  black  eye. 

2.  She  will  sing  in  any  case  charmingly,  for  her  train- 
ing has  been  admirable. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  109:  Place  every 
modifier   near   the   word   to   which   it  belongs. 

Exercise  110.  {Writte7i.^  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  109. 

Exercise  111.  (^Written.}  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using:  Pope  Benedict  the  Ninth,  Giotto, 
Tuscany,  propose,  specimen,  red-color,  compass, 
turn,  marvel,  courtier,  concerning,  returned, 
recognized,  perceive,  surpassed. 

GIOTTO'S    CIRCLE 

Pope  Benedict  the  Ninth,  liearing  of  Giotto's  fame, 
sent  one  of  his  courtiers  to  Tuscany  to  propose  to  him 
certain  paintings  for  the  Church  of  St.  Peter.  The 
messenger  arrived,  saw  tlie  painter,  and  finally  requested 
to  have  a  drawing,  that  he  niiglit  send  it  to  His  Holiness 
as  a  specimen  with  those  of  other  painters.     Giotto  took 


136      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

a  sheet  of  paper  and  a  pencil  dipped  in  a  red  color. 
Then,  resting  liis  elbow  on  his  side  to  form  a  sort  of 
compass,  with  one  turn  of  the  hand  he  drew  a  circle  so 
perfect  and  exact  that  it  was  a  marvel  to  behold.  This 
done,  he  turned,  smiling,  to  the  courtier,  saying,  "  Here 
is  your  drawing."  "  Am  I  to  have  nothing  more  than 
this?"  inquired  tlie  latter,  conceiving  himself  to  be 
jested  with.  "That  is  enough  and  to  spare,"  returned 
Giotto ;  "  send  it  with  the  rest,  and  you  will  see  if  it  will 
be  recognized."  It  was  from  this  incident  tliat  the  Pope 
was  led  to  perceive  how  far  Giotto  surpassed  all  the 
other  painters  of  his  time.  —  Longfellow  (adapted). 

Exercise  112.  (Oral.)  How  to  avoid  illogical 
reference  oi  personal  pronouns.  —  Read  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  aloud,  and  point  out  any 
personal  pronouns  that  refer  to  the  wrong  an- 
tecedent. Then  correct  the  error  as  best  you 
can. 

1.  Governor  Flower  having  refused  to  commute  the 
sentence  of  Carlyle  W.  Harris,  he  was  executed  at  Sing 
Sing  last  Monday  morning. 

2.  '■'■  Dear  papa :  Did  you  see  Mr.  Armor  kill  the  big 
fat  hog  with  the  black  tail  and  didn't  he  think  it  was  a 
buster?  I  was  sorry  to  see  the  hogs  leave  the  farm  and 
you  most  of  all. 

"  Your  loving  son, 

"  Danny." 

3.  First  Undergraduate  (readhu/  out).  —  Will  this  do, 
Gus?  "Mr.  Smith  presents  his  compliments  to  Mr. 
Jones,  and  finds  he  has  a  cap  which  isn't  mine.  So,  if 
you  have  a  cap  wliich  isn't  his,  no  doubt  they  are  the 
ones." 


THE  LOGICAL   PABAGEAPH  137 

Seco?id  Under gradudte.  —  Oh,  yes;  first-rate! — Punch. 

4.  Examinations  bring  oat  many  interesting  facts. 
Young  men  usually  show  a  distinctly  better  average  in 
arithmetic  than  ladies,  and  they  average  a  trifle  higher 
in  geography,  but  the  ladies  usually  are  ahead  in  history 
and  civil  government.  This,  no  doubt,  can  be  accounted 
for  because  they  are  to  a  great  extent  memory  studies. 
They  are  ahead  in  spelling  and  language. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  112  :  Place  every  pro- 
noun near  its  noun,  or  if  necessary  repeat  the  nomi. 

Exercise  113.  (  Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  112. 

Exercise  114.  {Wntten.~)  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using:  principal,  penetrate,  North  Polar  region, 
possible,  currents,  floe-ice,  expeditions,  unknown, 
replaced,  necessity. 

nansen's  belief  about  the  polar  seas. 

The  principal  feature  in  the  plan  of  my  attempt  to 
penetrate  into  the  Noi-th  Polar  region,  or  if  possible  to 
cross  it,  is,  in  brief,  to  try  to  make  use  of  the  cuiTents 
of  the  sea,  instead  of  fighting  against  them.  My  opinion 
is,  as  I  have  already  explained  on  several  occasions,  that 
there  nnist  somewhere  run  currents  into  the  Polar  region, 
whicJi  carry  the  floe-ice  across  the  Polar  Sea,  first  north- 
ward toward  the  Pole,  and  then  southward  again  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.      That  these    currents   really   exist   all 


138      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Arctic  expeditions  prove,  as  most  of  tliem  liave  had  to 
fight  against  the  currents  and  against  tlie  ice  drifting 
southward,  because  they  have  tried  to  get  northward 
from  the  wrong  side.  I  think  a  very  simple  conchisiou 
must  be  drawn  from  this  fact  that  currents  and  drifting 
ice  are  constantly  coming  from  the  unknown  north,  viz. :  ^ 
currents  and  perhaps  also  ice  must  pass  into  this  same 
region,  as  the  water  running  out  must  be  replaced  by 
water  running  in.  This  conclusion  is  based  upon  the 
simplest  of  all  natural  laws;  but  there  seem  to  be  people 
who  will  not  even  admit  the  necessity  of  this. — Dk.  F. 
Nansen,  quoted  in  Hibben's  Inductive  Logic. 

Exercise  115.  (Oral.)  How  to  avoid  illog- 
ical reference  of  a  participle.  —  The  participle, 
being  an  adjective  derived  from  a  verb,  keeps 
some  verbal  meaning.  In  the  sentence,  "Hav- 
ing asked  the  way,  John  was  readily  shown  it 
by  the  blacksmith,"  the  first  two  words,  "hav- 
ing asked,"  form  the  perfect  active  participle  of 
the  verb  "ask,"  and  this  participle  agrees  with 
"  John,"  describing  John  in  his  present  condi- 
tion, just  as  an  adjective  might  describe  him. 
But  suppose  we  are  careless  enough  to  write, 
"  Having  asked,  the  way  was  shown  to  John  by 
the  blacksmith."  Now  the  participle  is  made  to 
agree  with  "  way,"  and  we  have  the  absurdity 
of  a  road's  asking  something. 

1  The  abbreviation  viz.  is  for  the  Latin  videlicet.,  which 
really  means  "  it  may  be  seen."   17,?.  is  usually  read  "to  wit." 


THE  LOGICAL   PAEAGEAPII  139 

Read  aloud  the  following  sentences,  point  out 
the  illogical  reference  of  participles,  and  recon- 
struct the  sentences :  — 

1.  Coming  up  stairs,  the  window  fell. 

2.  Coining  up  stairs,  the  window  fell  on  him. 

3.  Coming  up  stairs,  it  was  seen  that  the  window  fell. 
4.1  Considering  the  circumstances,  he  was  justified. 

5.  Built  while  he  was  in  Europe,  W.  W.  Astor  has 
never  seen  the  Waldorf  or  the  Netherlands,  the  two  hotels 
owned  by  him. 

6.  Not  responding  to  a  call  this  morning,  the  door  of 
his  room  was  broken  open  and  the  congressman  was 
found  dead. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  115  :  Give  every  par- 
ticiple a  neighboring  noun  or  pronoun  with  which  to 
agree. 

Exercise  116.  (Written.)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  115. 

Exercise  117.  (Written.)  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of  any 
unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it,  using: 
handful,  cotton-wool,  inhale,  expiring,  freedom, 
floating,  matter,  manifest,  application,  obvious, 
germs,  virus,  contagious,  pi-opagated,  respirator. 

1  Careful  writers  do  not  use  considering  without  giving  it 
a  noun  or  pronoun  with  which  to  agree.  But  in  the  present 
state  of  opinion,  we  cannot  consider  4  a  very  bad  mistake. 
Also  the  expression  "Owing  to"  does  not  retpiire  a  noun  in 
agreement. 


140      A    FlliSr  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITIOX 


AN    INFERENCE    ABOUT    COTTOX-WOOL 

Tf  the  lungs  be  emptied  as  perfectly  as  possible  and  a 
handful  of  cotton-wool  be  ]ilaced  agninst  the  mouth  and 
nostrils,  and  you  inliale  through  it,  it  will  be  found  on 
expiring  tJiis  air  through  a  glass  tube  that  its  freedom 
from  floating  matter  is  manifest.  The  application  of 
this  is  obvious ;  if  a  physician  wishes  to  hold  back  from 
the  lungs  of  his  patient,  or  from  his  own,  the  germs,  or 
virus  by  -which  contagious  disease  is  propagated,  he  will 
employ  a  cotton-wool  respirator.  —  Professok  Tyxdall, 
quoted  in  Ilibben's  Inductire  Lcujic. 


Exercise  118.  (Oral.')  How  to  avoid  the 
illogical  confusion  of  participle  and  verbal  noun. — 
Read  aloud  the  ft)llovving  sentences,  select  the 
active  participles,  or  adjectives  in  {»</,  and  say 
with  what  they  agree  :  — 

1.  Imagine  to  yourself  Michel  Angelo,  working  for  a 
week  without  taking  off  his  clothes  ;  and  Handel,  hollow- 
ing out  every  key  of  his  harpsicliord,  like  a  spoon,  by 
incessant  jiractice. 

2.  In  the  Church  of  the  St.  Nazaro,  in  Florence,  is  an 
epitaph  upon  the  tomb  of  a  soldier,  as  tit  for  the  whole 
toiling  race  as  for  his  own  restless  life :  "  Johannes 
Divultius,   who     never    rested,   rests  —  hush!"  —  T.  T. 

MUNGER. 

3.  The  sun  being  then  directly  overhead,  the  savage 
emerged  from  the  forest  and  stood  beside  the  dead  pine 
tree,  this  having  l)een  selected  months  before  as  the 
place  for  meeting  that  day  at  noon. 


THE  LOGICAL   PABAGBAPII  141 

Read  aloud  the  following  sentences,  and  point 
out  the  verbals  in  ing^  —  that  is  to  say,  names 
of  actions  :  — 

1.  Not  the  sliip's  being  in  the  water,  but  the  water's 
being  in  the  ship  makes  the  trouble. 

2.  Think  of  INIichel  Angelo,  working  for  a  week  with- 
out taking  off  his  clotlies;  and  then  think  of  his  accom- 
plishing more  than  any  painter  of  his  time. 

3.  A  clergyman  was  once  asked  to  preach  in  a  church 
where  there  were  no  lights.  "  We'll  do  the  lighting  up," 
said  the  people.  Every  parishioner  brought  his  lantern 
or  his  lamp,  so  that  the  whole  building  presented  a  singu- 
lar appearance. 

Now  read  aloud  the  following  sentences  and 
say  which  of  the  bracketed  words  is  preferable 
in  the  given  place  :  — 

1.  Think  of  [me,  my]  doing  any  such  thing  ! 

2.  Picture  [me,  my]  doing  any  such  thing  ! 

3.  He  objects  to  [us,  our]  going. 

4.  He  saw  [us,  our]  going  down  the  street. 

5.  He  observed  [us,  our]  coming  back. 

6.  The  fact  of  [Poe,  Poe's]  being  a  genius  should  not 
blind  us  to  his  moral  weakness. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  118  :  When  using  a  vsrord 
in  ing,  precede  it  by  the  possessive  if  you  mean  the 
action  itself. 

Exercise  119.  (  Written.)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  liofht  of  Exercise  118. 


142      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  120.  {Written.)  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using:  Barrett,  assistant,  Faraday,  steadying, 
magnetic,  impressively,  earnestly,  mysterious. 

Faraday's  humility 

]\Ir.  Barrett,  a  former  assistant  at  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution, said  of  Faraday :  "  I  well  remember  one  day 
when  Mr.  Faraday  was  by  my  side,  I  happened  to  be 
steadying,  by  means  of  a  magnet,  the  motion  of  a  mag- 
netic needle  under  a  glass  shade.  JNIr.  Faraday  sud- 
denly looked  most  impressively  and  earnestly,  as  he  said: 
'  How  wonderful  and  mysterious  is  that  power  you  have 
there  !  The  more  I  think  over  it,  the  less  I  seem  to 
know.'  And  yet  he  who  said  this  knew  more  of  it  than 
any  living  man."  —  Gladstone  :  Michael  Faradaij,  quoted 
by  Hibben  :  Indnclice  Logic. 

Exercise  121.  (Oral  and  Written.)  How  to 
avoid  making  which  refer  to  a  verb. 

If  we  write,  "'  He  said  that  he  always  doted 
on  Shakespeare  —  ivhich  I,  for  one,  didn't  be- 
lieve, because  I  know  the  fellow,"  there  is  no 
one  word,  except  the  verb  "said,"  that  which 
can  tie  to ;  it  is  a  relative  without  an  antece- 
dent. A  better  way  is  to  discard  the  relative 
clause,  substituting  ayid  with  a  demonstrative. 
Thus,  instead  of  writing,  "He  bowed  politely, 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  143 

ivhich  set  us  all  at  ease,"  write,  "He  bowed 
politely,  and  this  set  us  all  at  ease."  This 
is  allowed  by  our  English  idiom  to  refer  to 
the  clause,  though  tlie  construction  is  still 
vague.  But  the  best  plan  is  to  hunt  up  a  good 
synonym  for  the  idea  of  the  preceding  clause : 
"He  bowed  politely,  and  this  courtesy  set  us  all 
at  ease."  Yet  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  away 
with  the  relative  clause.  A  little  ingenuity 
will  enable  one  to  find  and  insert,  just  before 
the  relative,  an  appositive  to  the  clause.  Into 
each  of  the  following  sentences  slip  an  apposi- 
tive chosen  from  the  following  list :  a  fact,  a 
task,  a  statemeyit,  a  notion,  a  fancy,  a  belief ,  a 
remedy. 

1.  JNIr.  Tgnatius  Donnelly   thinks  that  Bacon  wrote 

Shakespeare, which  ought  not  to  bother  the  student 

who  likes  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

2.  He  has  uiulertaken  to  learn  two  hard  lessons  in 

one  hour, which  will  probably  prove  too  much  for 

the  lad. 

3.  He  proposes  to  cut  the  hand  off, which  seems 

rather  cruel. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  121  :  Instead  of  which 
referring  to  a  clause,  use  which  preceded  by  an  apposi- 
tive for  the  clause. 

Revise  past  themes  in  the  liglit  of  this  con- 
clusion. 


144      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  122.  {Written.')  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning 
of  any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using:  sphere,  picture,  spinning,  polar,  accept, 
statement,  idea,  fact,  readiest,  observing,  like- 
wise, emptiness,  face. 

HOW   TO   IMAGINE   THE   EAKTH   IN   SPACE 

After  a  person  has  come  to  feel  the  earth  as  a  sphere, 
the  next  point  is  to  be  able  to  picture  it  as  hung  in  space, 
spinning  around  on  the  polar  axis.  It  is  easy  enough  to 
accept  the  statement  that  it  does  so,  but  to  obtain  so 
clear  an  idea  of  the  fact  that  it  stays  in  the  mind  is 
rather  difficult.  Perhaps  the  readiest  way  to  this  end  is 
by  observing  the  moon,  wliich  is  likewise  set  in  the  great 
emptiness  of  the  heavens,  but  does  not  revolve  on  its  axis, 
and,  therefore,  always  turns  the  same  face  toward  us. — 
Proff:ssor  X.  S.  Shalkij  (in  TJic  Ymitli's  Companion). 

Exercise  123.  (Oral.)  How  to  avoid  the 
illogical  use  of  and  which. 

Whenever  we  say  ''and  which,"  we  are  sup- 
posedly connecting  one  relative  clause  with 
another.  Yet  very  often  the  hasty  writer  for- 
gets that  what  he  wrote  just  before  "  and  which" 
was  not  a  relative  clause,  but  an  adjective  or 
some  descriptive  phrase.  Which  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences  contains  this  error? 

My  grandfather  was  among  the  early  settlers  of  Wis- 
consin, which  had  just  been  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a 


THE  LOGICAL   PAEAGRAPII  145 

state,  and  the  fame  of  which  as  a  rich  farming  country 
had  reached  the  east.  He  began  his  journey  west  by  the 
Erie  Canal,  then  the  great  artery  of  trade  across  New 
York,  and  which  was  to  remain  sucli  for  years.  From 
Lake  Ontario  he  proceeded  west  by  water  to  Green  Bay. 
He  then  found  his  way  by  trees  girdled  in  the  primeval 
forest,  and  which  marked  the  course  of  the  main  roads  of 
to-day. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  123  :  Do  not  write  and 
which  imless  you  have  begun  the  preceding  clause  with 
which. 

Revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of  this  con- 
clusion. 

Exercise  124.    (^Oral  and    Written.^    Read 
the  following  paragraphs  aloud,  and  revise  past 
themes  in  the  light  of  their  principles. 
Concord  of  pronoun  and  antecedent. 

1,  It  should  be  remembered  that  every  sin- 
gular antecedent  takes  a  singular  pronoun. 
"  Everybody  came  forward  and  laid  his  con- 
tribution on  the  table  "  —  not  "  their  contribu- 
tion." Of  course  it  may  be  argued  that 
"everybody"  means  the  same  as  "all,"  and 
is  therefore  a  plural.  But  "everybody"  is 
not  thought  of  as  "  all "  when  such  an  act  as 
laying  a  contribution  on  a  table  is  concerned. 
People  instinctively  use  "everybody"  when 
they  think  of  a  succession  of  individual  actors. 


146      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

2.  When  a  number  of  persons,  men  and 
women,  are  spoken  of  distributively,  the  pro- 
nouns he  and  his  are  proper  forms  of  reference 
—  not  thei)\  not  his  or  her.  "  The  audience 
rose,  and  each  person  waved  his  applause " 
would  be  correct,  even  if  there  were  ten  ladies 
to  each  man.  The  he  or  his  may  here  be  called 
the  neutral  pronoun.  What  pronouns  should 
fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentence?  "Let 
every  man  and  woman  who  would  like  to  join 

our   picnic    betake to    the    pier    at    three 

o'clock,    and    give no  anxiety    about 

lunch  ; will  find  plenty  of  sandwiches  and 

cake  and  coffee  on  the  picnic-boat." 

Such  expressions  as  "  every  man  and  woman  " 
are,  however,  undesirable  whenever  the  neuti'al 
pronoun  is  to  be  used.  A  neutral  antecedent, 
like  everi/  person,  everybody,  every  one,  is  pref- 
erable. 

3.  Be  careful  not  to  say  "  they  "  in  referring 
to  a  species.  The  conductor  would  be  gram- 
matical if  he  said :  "  We  don't  allow  turtles  in 
these  cars.  They  must  travel  in  the  baggage 
car."  But  he  would  be  ungrammatical  if  he 
said:  "The  turtle  is  not  one  of  the  animals 
that  are  permitted  in  these  cars ;  they  must 
travel  in  the  baggage  car." 


THE  LOGICAL   PABAGRAPII  147 

Exercise  125.  (  Written.)  After  hearing 
the  following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning 
of  any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using :  succession,  metallic,  woollen,  compara- 
tively, thermometer,  temperatures,  inform,  rate, 
gains,  tends,  body,  equally,  rapidly,  convey. 

WHY    DO   OBJECTS    EQUALLY   COLD   FEEL 
UNEQUALLY   COLD? 

Touch  in  succession  various  objects  on  the  table.  A 
paper  weight,  if  metallic,  is  usually  cold  to  the  touch ; 
books,  paper,  and  especially  a  woollen  table  cover,  com- 
paratively warm.  Test  them  by  means  of  a  tliermome- 
ter,  and  there  will  be  little  or  no  difference  in  their  tem- 
peratures. Why  then  do  some  feel  cold,  others  warm  to 
the  touch?  The  sense  of  touch  does  not  inform  us 
directly  of  temperature,  but  of  the  rate  at  which  our 
finger  gains  or  loses  heat.  As  a  rule,  bodies  in  a  room 
are  colder  than  the  hand,  and  heat  always  tends  to  pass 
from  a  warmer  to  a  colder  body.  Of  a  number  of  bodies, 
all  equally  colder  than  the  hand,  that  one  will  seem  cold- 
est to  the  touch,  as  the  metallic,  whicli  is  able  most  rap- 
idly to  convey  away  heat  from  the  hand.  —  Tait,  quoted 
in  Hibben's  Inductive  Logic. 

Exercise  126.  {Ond.)  To  review  certain  prin- 
ciples of  government,  and  of  concord  between  sub- 
ject and  predicate. 

Government. 

"He  invited  him  and  /"  is  not  an  unheard-of 
blunder.     People  often  needlessly  shrink  from 


148      A   FIBST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

writing  a  correct  sentence  like  "  He  invited 
him  and  me,"  and  will  even  insert  the  full 
names  of  him  and  vie  rather  than  out  with  the 
right  case  of  the  pronoun. 

Concord  betwreen  subject  and  predicate. 

1.  A  collective  noun  takes  a  singular  verb 
if  the  group  of  objects  is  thought  of  as  a  whole : 
"The  United  States  is  coining  gold  and  silver." 
The  collective  noun  takes  a  plural  verb  if  each 
separate  member  of  the  group  is  thought  of: 
"  The  United  States  are  firmly  bound  together 
in  one  union." 

2.  Before  writing  the  verb  of  a  relative 
clause,  think  whether  the  antecedent  is  sin- 
gular or  plural.  "  Her  voice  is  one  of  the 
sweetest  that  have  [not  Jia.s^  been  heard  in  this 
town." 

3.  In  writing  a  long  sentence,  glance  back  at 
the  number  of  the  subject  before  you  write  the 
verb.  A  plural  near  the  verb  often  leads  one 
to  forget  that  the  subject  is  singular.  Thus : 
"  The  great  number  of  the  crows  that  settle 
nightly  in  the  grove  and  fill  the  air  with  their 
cries,  makes  [not  ■make^  the  place  a  bedlam." 
[But,  ''A  number  of  crows  were  there."  ] 

4.  When  a  singular  subject  precedes  a  paren- 


THE  LOGICAL   PAEAGRAPH  149 

thetical  phrase,  the  former  reaches  over  the 
head  of  the  hitter,  and  makes  the  verb  sin- 
gular. Tliis  I'ule  hohls  even  when  the  paren- 
thesis is  introduced  by  ?/'/^A.  Thus:  "Napoleon, 
with  all  his  army,  was  on  the  march."' 

5.  Either^  neither,  when  used  as  distributives, 
take  a  singular  verb.  '•'•  Neitlier  one  of  us  was 
present." 

6.  JVone,  originally  no-one,  is  either  singular 
or  plural,  preferably  singular. 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sen- 
tences:— 

1.  His  courage  and  skill  makes  him  successful  as  a 
football  player. 

2.  There's  lots  and  lots  of  sweet  clover  there. 

3.  There's  all  the  boys. 

4.  There's  many  slips  'twixt  the  cup  and  the  lips. 

5.  There  was  Tommy  and  Johny  and  Lucy  and  Sue. 

6.  There  was  once  upon  a  time  two  great  giants. 

7.  The  king  of  France  with  forty  thousand  men  are 
marching  up  the  hill. 

8.  Wages  is  higher.  [In  King  James's  time  the  trans- 
lators were  grammatically  correct  in  writing  "The  wages 
of  sin  is  death."] 

9.  Mathematics  is  hard,  but  so  is  athletics. 

10.  Neither  you  nor  he  nor  1  are  infallible. 

11.  That  dog  is  the  biggest  dog,  or  one  of  the  biggest 
dogs,  that  have  been  seen  here  this  summer. 

12.  Tluxt  dog  is  one  of  the  biggest  that  has  been  seen 
here. 

13.  Was  you  to  the  ball  game  yesterday  ? 


150      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  127.  (Written.')  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  126. 

Exercise  128.  {Written.)  After  hearing  the 
following  paragraph  read,  ask  the  meaning  of 
new  words.  Tlien  reproduce  the  substance  of 
it,  using:  boulders,  huge,  parent  strata,  low- 
lands, central  plain,  indubitably,  northward, 
site,  detached,  transported,  accidentally,  super- 
natural, disproved,  currents,  washing,  friction, 
dislodge,  force  along,  progress,  multitudes  of 
circumstances,  tending,  grind,  undercut,  faces, 
moraines,   district,  exhibits,   are  now  observed. 

THE  FORMING  OF   A  RIGHT  CONCLUSIOX   ABOUT 
GLACIERS 

Take,  for  example,  the  case  of  blocks  or  boulders, 
huge  fragments  of  rock  found  at  a  distance  from  their 
parent  strata.  The  lowlands  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  and  the  great  central  plain  of  Northern  Europe 
contain  many  such  fragments.  Their  composition  shows 
indubitably  that  they  once  formed  part  of  hills  to  the 
northward  of  their  present  site.  They  must  somehow 
have  been  detached  and  transported  to  where  we  now 
find  them.  How?  One  old  explanation  is  that  they 
were  carried  by  witches,  or  that  they  were  themselves 
witches  accidentally  dropped  and  turned  into  stone. 
Any  such  explanation  by  supernatural  means  can  neither 
be  proved  nor  disproved.  .  .  .  Again,  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  boulders  may  liave  been  transj^orted  by  water. 
Water  is  so  far  a  true  cause  that  currents  are  known  to 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  151 

be  capable  of  washing  liuge  blocks  to  a  great  distance. 
But  blocks  transported  in  this  way  have  their  edges  worn 
off  by  the  friction  of  their  passage  :  and,  besides,  currents 
strong  enough  to  dislodge  and  force  along  for  miles 
blocks  as  big  as  cottages  must  have  left  other  marks  of 
their  progress.  It  is  now  believed  that  glaciers  and  ice- 
bergs were  the  means  of  transport.  But  this  explanation 
was  not  acce2:)ted  till  multitudes  of  circumstances  were 
examined  all  tending  to  sliow  that  glaciers  had  once  been 
present  in  the  regions  where  tlie  blocks  are  found.  The 
habits  of  glaciers  have  been  studied  where  they  still 
exist:  how  they  slowly  move  down,  carrying  fragments 
of  rock ;  how  icebei-gs  break  off  when  they  reach  water, 
float  off  with  their  load,  and  drop  it  when  they  melt ; 
how  they  grind  and  smooth  the  surfaces  of  rocks  over 
which  they  pass  or  that  are  frozen  into  them ;  how  they 
undercut  and  mark  the  faces  of  precipices  past  which 
they  move ;  how  moraines  are  formed  at  the  melting 
ends  of  them,  and  so  forth.  When  a  district  exhibits  all 
the  circumstances  that  are  now  observed  to  attend  the 
action  of  glaciers,  the  proof  of  the  guess  that  glaciers 
were  once  there  is  complete.  —  WilliAxM  Minto  :  Logic 
(adapted). 

Exercise   129.    (Oral.)   How    to    avoid   an 

awkv^ard  change  of  structure  in   the   sentence.  — 

Sometimes  a  sentence  is  i^ulled  al)out  by  the 
mind  as  a  child  by  a  cross  nurse.  It  begins  in 
the  active  voice,  but  is  twitched  aside  into  the 
passive.  It  begins  as  the  act  of  one  person,  but 
ends  as  that  of  another.  Even  so  admirable  a 
writer  as  John  Fiske  has  this  sentence :  ••'  But 


152      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Howe  could  not  bear  to  acknowledge  the  defeat 
of  his  attempts  to  storm,  and  accordingly,  at 
five  o'clock,  with  genuine  British  persistency, 
a  third  attack  was  ordered."  This  "  British 
persistency "  is  evidently  Howe's.  Why  not 
give  him  full  credit  for  it?  thus  —  "But  Howe 
could  not  bear  to  acknowledge  the  defeat  of 
his  attempts  to  storm,  and  accordingly,  at  five 
o'clock,  with  genuine  Britisli  persistency  he 
ordered  a  third  attack. 

Cliange  or  omit  the  italicized  words  so  as 
to  turn  the  following  compound  sentences  into 
simple.  In  other  words,  let  each  sentence 
have  but  one  subject. 

1.  Judge  Hughes  wrote  Tom  Brown  at  Rugby,  and 
also  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford  was  tvrilten  hij  him. 

2.  Tom  and  East  became  good  friends,  and  the  tyranny 
of  a  certain  insolent  fellow  was  sturdily  resisted  by  them 
together. 

3.  You  will  see  no  sudden  jerks  of  the  rudder,  nor  will 
any  clumsy  rounding  of  a  point  be  seen. 

4.  Miller,  motionless  till  now,  lifts  his  right  hand,  and 
the  tassel  is  whirled  I'ound  his  head. 

5.  He  disliked  the  idea  of  spending  the  night  in  the 
old  country  house,  and  still  more  to  go  through  the  tapes- 
tried chamber,  but  it  was  immediately  determined  by  him 
that  such  an  invitation  must  not  be  refused. 

6.  The  boys  in  the  schools  "  put  into  Coventry  "  the 
boy  who,  while  holding  the  bat,  flinches  at  tlie  approach 


TTIE  LOGICAL  PARAGRAPH  153 

of  the  cricket-ball;  he  in  iynnred  :'^  no  one  speaks  to  liiin, 
walks  with  him,  sits  with  him.  Few  boys  get  "into  Cov- 
entry "  a  second  time;  they  prefer  a  broken  limb  to  dodg- 
ing. If  the  Didce  of  Wellington  ever  did  say,  "  Waterloo 
was  won  on  the  Eaton  cricket-field,"  that  "  Coventry " 
business  explains  it.  —  Moses  Coit  Tylek. 

Conclusion   under   Exercise  129 :  Often  compel   a 
simple  sentence  to  do  the  -work  of  a  compound. 

Exercise  130.  (  Wrltten.~)  Revise  i^ast  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercise  129. 

Exercise  131.    (Oral.)   How   to   dispose   of 

modifiers  masking  as  sentences.  —  "  General  Kitch- 
ener is  an  English  Lord.  General  Kitchener 
fought  in  Africa.  General  Kitchener  there 
defeated  a  fierce  people.  General  Kitchener 
Avas  asked  to  write  a  book  about  his  victories. 
General  Kitchener  said,  '  Let  us  have  one  gen- 
eral who  has  not  written  a  book.' "  Is  this 
group  of  sentences  wasteful  or  economical  of 
space  ?  How  many  verbs  are  there  in  the 
group?  If  now  we  try  to  combine  all  the  sen- 
tences into  one,  taking  Kitchener  as  the  simple 
subject,  and  reducing  the  first  three  sentences 
to  a  modified  subject,  w-e  shall  have  :  "  General 
Lord  Kitchener,  who  defeated  a  fierce  African 
people,  refused  to  write  of  liis  victories,  saying, 
^  Here  the  change  to  the  passive  is  good.     Why  ? 


154      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

'  Let  us  have  one  general  who  has  not  written 
a  book.' " 

Hawthorne  wrote :  — 

Carlyle  dresses  so  badly,  and  wears  such  a  rough 
outside,  that  the  flunkies  are  rude  to  him  at  gentlemen's 
doors. 

A  less  logical  writer  would  have  made  two 
or  three  sentences  instead  of  that  one  ;  lie 
would  have  said,  "  Carlyle  dresses  very  badly, 
and  wears  a  rough  outside.  They  say  that  the 
flunkies  are  rude  to  him  at  gentlemen's  doors." 

How  many  independent  propositions  are 
there  in  each  of  the  following? 

1.  r  think  that  having  learned  our  letters  we  should 
read  the  best  that  is  in  literature,  and  not  be  forever 
repeating  our  a  b  alis,  and  words  of  one  syllable,  in  the 
fourth  or  fifth  classes,  sitting  on  the  lowest  and  foremost 
form  all  our  lives.  — IIexkv  i).  Thokeau. 

2.  Let  a  man  of  masculine  character  and  evident 
ability  set  himself  to  rule  and  drill  boys,  holding  no  un- 
necessary converse  with  them,  working  them  to  the  height 
of  their  powers,  insisting  on  the  work  ^  being  done,  not 
fearing  to  punish  with  severity,  using  terrible  language 
on  occasion,  dealing  with  every  boy  alike  without  favor 
or  partiality,  giving  rare  praise  with  enthusiasm,  and 
refraining  always  from  mocking  sarcasm, — which  boys 
hate  and  never  forgive,  —  and  he  will  have  his  reward, 
—  Ian  Maclaren. 

1  Compare  footnote,  p.  124. 


THE  LOGICAL   PARAGRAPH  155 

The  writers  of  these  two  selections  have  re- 
duced to  their  proper  rank  as  modifiers  various 
thougfhts  that  less  log'ical  writers  would  have 
left  as  sentences.  They  have  expressed  most 
of  these  thoughts  by  the  help  of  participles. 
A  long  sentence  full  of  participles  is  a  little 
hard  to  manage,  however.     For  example  :  — 

Brown  was  crossing  the  bridge  wlien  a  team  loaded 
with  clay  for  the  brick  works  came  down  the  hill  from 
the  depot,  the  driver  losing  control  of  the  team,  w^hich 
crashed  into  Browm's  buggy  at  the  sonth  end  of  the 
bridge,  knocking  Brown  clear  off  the  bank  and  throwing 
his  wife  out  between  the  wagons,  bruising  and  injuring 
her  quite  badly,  but  the  doctor  thought  no  bones  were 
broken. 

Examine  the  following  compound  sentences, 
to  decide  whether  or  not  there  is  in  each  some 
important  thought  to  which  the  others  ought 
to  have  been  subordinated.  Tlien  improve  the 
unity  by  reducing  the  subordinate  ideas  to  de- 
pendent clauses  begun  by  a  participle,  or  a  rela- 
tive adverb  like  when. 

1.  I  reached  the  top ;  I  lay  down. 

2.  The  soldiers  were  perhaps  somewhat  sleepy  with 
the  sultriness  of  the  afternoon ;  they  had  now  laid  by 
much  of  their  vigilance. 

3.  I  spied  an  honest  fellow  coming  along  a  lane,  and 
asked  him  if  lie  had  ever  heard  of  a  house  called  the 
house  of  Shaws. 


156      A    FIRST  3IANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

4.  The  next  person  I  came  across  was  a  dappei'  little 
man  in  a  beautiful  white  wig.  I  knew  well  that  barbers 
were  great  gossips,  and  I  asked  him  plainly  what  kind 
of  a  man  was  Mr.  Balfour  of  the  Shaws. 

.5.  In  these  days  folk  still  believed  in  witches  and 
tremljled  at  a  curse.  This  curse  fell  pat,  like  a  wayside 
omen,  to  arrest  me ;  it  took  the  pith  out  of  my  legs. 

6.  I  was  called  in  at  last ;  my  uncle  counted  out  into 
my  hand  seven  and  thii'ty  golden  guinea  pieces. 

7.  I  had  come  close  to  one  of  the  turns  in  the  stair; 
J  felt  my  way  as  usual;  my  hand  slipped  upon  an  edge 
and  found  nothing  but  emptiness  beyond  it. 

8.  J  returned  to  the  kitchen  ;  I  made  uj")  such  a  l)laze  as 
had  not  shone  there  for  many  a  long  year;  I  wrapped  my- 
self in  my  plaid;  I  lay  down  upon  the  chests  and  fell  asleep. 

Read  aloud  the  following  sentences,  omitting 
the  useless  verbs  bracketed,  and  reducing  to 
phrases  the  clauses  italicized :  ^  — 

Englishmen  are  plucky,  even  ivheii  they  arc  hoys. 

One  of  the  Xapiers,  ivlio  are  a  famous  fighting  famUy, 
while  [he  was]  directing  the  troops  in  a  battle,  had  his 
jaw  smashed.  lie  went  to  the  rear,  [he  proceeded]  to 
the  surgeon,  Jiail  the  jaw  bandaged,  and  returned  to  the 
fighting  line.  A  shot  made  his  riglit  arm  useless.  A 
surgeon  who  luas  in  the  field  staff  bound  it  up,  and  Xapier 
was  soon  in  front  again. 

In  the  following  passages  reduce  any  unduly 
prominent  sentences  to  the  rank  of  dependent 

1  Italics  are  represented  in  manuscript  by  underscoring. 
ForeigiT  words  are  usually  underscored ;  can  you  give  an 
example  from  an  earlier  exercise  ? 


THE  LOGICAL   PAliAGRAPII  157 

clauses,  by  tlie  use  of  as,  though,  because,  since, 
or  inasmuch  as. 

1.  A  lady  once  offered  me  a  mat.  I  had  no  room  to 
spare  witliin  the  house,  nor  time  to  spare  within  or  with- 
out to  shake  it.  I  declined  it,  preferring  to  wipe  my  feet 
on  the  sod  before  my  door. 

2.  This  road  grew  familiar  to  me.  Now  I  try  to 
recall  it.  I  remember  first  this  detail  and  then  that.  I 
finally  come  to  see  it  all  again  in  my  mind. 

3.  My  journey's  done.  The  others  go  ashore.  I  must 
needs  ask  something.     Let  me  have  a  whole  holiday. 

4.  I  may  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  angels. 
But  if  I  have  not  charity,  it  profiteth  me  nothing. 

5.  This  is  the  bitter  truth.  I  shall  not  attempt  to 
deny  it. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  131 :  Reduce  to 
clauses  or  phrases  any  sentences  which  can  easily 
be  reduced. 

Exercise  132.  (Written.')  Begin  the  revi- 
sion of  past  themes  in  the  light  of  Exercise  131. 

Exercise  133.  (WriUen.)  Continue  the  re- 
vision of  past  themes  in  the  light  of  Exercise  131. 

Exercise  134.  (Wnften.')  Conclude  the  re- 
vision of  past  themes  in  the  light  of  Exercise  131. 

Exercise  135.  (  Oral.)  Read  aloud  your  best 
recent  theme  and  receive  criticisms  from  the 
class. 


CHAPTER   V 

CORRECTNESS   IN   THE   USE   OF   WORDS 

Exercise  13(1  (Oral.)  To  use  certain  nouns 
and  pronouns  correctly.  —  Suppose  that  a  writer 
uses  a  good  English  word,  but  uses  it  in  a  sense 
not  found  in  the  best  authors.  In  this  case  he 
employs  it  improperly  ;  he  commits  an  impro- 
priety. Sometimes  two  words  sound  so  much 
alike  that  they  are  mistaken  one  for  the  other ; 
for  instance,  accept  and  except.  Sometimes  they 
mean  nearly  the  same  thing,  and  so  come  to  be 
confused;  for  example,  cotitinual  and  co7itinuous. 
The  following  list  gives  nouns  and  pronouns 
that  are  frequently  misused.  The  illustrative 
sentences  contain  the  correct  or  the  preferred 
usage. 

Ability,   capacity. 

1.  The  capacity  of  man's  memory  is  great. 

2.  Capacity  for  learning  and  ability  for  doing  are  secrets 
of  success. 

Do  these  words  sliare  the  idea  oi  poiver? 
158 


CORRECTNESS   IN    THE    USE   OF   WORDS      159 

Acceptance,  acceptation. 

1.  His  ucceptance  was  graceful. 

2.  You  use  the  word  in  its  common  acceptation. 

Each  of  these  words  contains  the  idea  to  take. 
In  what  sense  may  this  be  said? 

Access,  accession. 

1.  Access  to  the  director  is  easy. 

2.  The  library  has  received  an  accession  of  books. 

3.  She  was  seized  with  an  access  of  grief. 

4.  The  Tsar  celebrated  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

Each  of  these  words  contains  the  idea  of  en- 
trance. Access  means  the  entrance  of  a  person 
into  a  room  or  into  the  presence  of  another; 
also  the  entrance  of  a  flood  of  emotion  into  the 
mind.  Accession  means  tlie  entrance  of  a  person 
into  the  rights  of  a  position ;  also  the  entrance 
of  books  or  other  objects  to  a  collection,  —  an 
addition  to  the  collection. 

Act,   action. 

1.  Character  is  developed  by  action. 

2.  Our  own  acts  for  good  or  ill  speak  for  us. 

Explain  how  both  these  words  hold  the  idea 
of  do. 

Advance,  advancement. 

1.  The  swallow  comes  with  the  advance  of  the  season. 


160      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

2.  lie  has  received  advancement. 

3.  Each  advance  of  Xapoleon  was  swift. 

What  idea  have  these  two  words  in  common? 
Explain  how  they  differ. 

Alternative,  choice. 

1.  Tliere  is  no  alto-native  :  he  must  go. 

2.  There  are  only  three  choices. 

Altetmative  is  a  choice  between thin<rs. 

Avocation,  vocation. 

1.  My  regular  calling,  or  vocation,  is  teaching;  for 
an  avocation  1  spend  my  holidays  in  photography. 

2.  Dr.  Weir  Mitchell  is  a  physician ;  but  his  regular 
vocation  of  medicine  doesn't  prevent  him  from  following 
the  delightful  avocation  of  letters. 

Both  these  words  have  the  idea  of  calling. 
Exphain  how  they  diif er.  (  What  does  ab  mean 
in  Latin?) 

Balance,  remainder. 

1.  The  halance  of  the  sum  is  due. 

2.  The  remainder  of  the  day  is  spent. 

What  rekition  exists  between  balancing  (a 
book')  and  reynainderf 

Character,  reputation. 

1.  His  reputation  for  integrity  is  good. 

2.  His  character  is  beyond  reproach. 


COEEECTNESS  IN    THE   USE   OF   WOEDS      161 

3.  A  man  cannot  always  control  his  i-eputation,  hnt  he 
can  control  his  character. 

Character  is  what  a  man ;  reputation  is 

what  people of  him. 

Compliment,  complement. 

1.  Woman's  mind  is  by  many  considered  the  comple- 
ment of  man's,  supplying  certain  things  that  the  mas- 
culine mind  has  not. 

'2.    His  com])ll)nenls  are  re^iWy  flaltcries. 

3.  The  secretary  supplied  the  army  with  its  comple- 
ment of  stores. 

Council,  counsel. 

1.  His  counsel  defended  him  in  the  trial. 

2.  Let  good  counsel  pi'evail. 

3.  The  council  of  ten  gave  good  counsel. 

Define  these  two  words.  What  idea  have 
they  in  common  ? 

Exercise   137.     {Oral.}    The  same  subject 

continued. 
Majority,  plurality. 

A  majority  is  more  than  half  the  whole  num- 
ber. A  plyralit)/  is  the  excess  of  votes  received 
by  one  candidate  above  another.  When  there 
are  several  candidates,  the  one  who  receives 
more  votes  than  any  other  has  a  plurality. 

In  what  respect  are  these  words  alike  in 
meaninof?  in  what  unlike? 


162      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Myself,  I. 

We  were  three :  brother,  sister,  and  /.  The  others 
were  very  young,  and  /  myself  was  not  more  than  nine 
years  old,  but  I  thought  mi/selfquite  able  to  take  care  of 
mi/ self  and  them  too. 

Necessities,  necessaries. 

If  we  are  driven  to  it  by  our  necessities,  we  shall  be 
able  to  find  the  necessaries  of  life,  for  these  are  few. 

Observation,  observance. 

1.  His  observuliun  of  the  habits  of  birds  was  keen. 

2.  His  ohservance  of  the  Sabbath  was  strict. 

Is  watch  the  best  word  for  the  idea  shared  by 
these  words  ?     Discuss. 

Observation,  remark. 

1.  Johnson's  observations  of  men  were  keen. 

2.  .Tohnsou's  observations  were  made  with  his  eyes ;  his 
remarks,  with  his  tongue;  and  Boswell,  by  recording  the 
remarks,  recorded  the  observations. 

What  rehition  has  a  remark  to  an  observation  ? 

One's  self,  oneself. 

Ones  self  is  preferable  to  oneself. 

Party,  person. 

1.  A  party  in  a  silk  hat  must  be  a  party  of  Liliputians. 

2.  The  party  of  the  first  part  was  two  persons. 

3.  A  seedy  person  joined  the  party. 

4.  T  refuse  to  be  a  party  to  the  deed. 

Is  the  idea  of  a  part  always  contained  in  the 
word  parti/  .^     Discuss. 


CORRECTNESS  IN   THE   USE  OF  WORDS     163 

Part,  portion. 

1.  Esau  sold  his  portion,  the  part  allotted  him. 

2.  The  human  body  has  many  pai'ts. 

3.  Waiter,  one  portion  of  roast  beef  will  do  ! 

What  is  a  portion  .^ 

Prominent,  predominant. 

There  were  many  prominent  men  in  Lincoln's  cabinet, 
but  the  President  was  always  predominant  among  them. 

Consult  the  unabridged  dictionary  as  to  the 

origin  of  these  words. 

Recipe,  receipt. 

As  receipt  comes  from  a  Latin  participle  mean- 
ing "  taken,"  it  is  easy  to  see  why  when  money  is 
taken  a  receipt  is  given.  Recipe  is  a  Latin  im- 
perative meaning  "  take  "  ;  naturally  it  is  the 
better  word  for  a  formula  in  cooking ;  "  take  " 
so  much  salt,  so  much  meal,  so  much  water  — 
and  lo  !  a  johnny  cake. 

Relative,  relation. 

One  may  have  many  relatives  with  whom  he  does  not 
keep  up  close  relations. 

Is  relation  an  abstract  noun,  or  a  concrete? 

Residence,  house. 

1.  Do  not  say  residence  when  j'ou  mean  house;  the 
simpler  word  is  the  better. 

2.  He  has  his  residence  in  his  house. 

3.  His  residence,  or  place  of  residence,  is  Montreal. 


164      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Sewage,  sewerage. 

The  sewage  flows  through  the  system  of  sewerage. 

Site,  situation. 

1.  Lovely  is  Ziou  for  situdlion. 

2.  Tlie  site  of  Troy  Avas  repeatedly  built  upon,  each 
new  Troy  being  in  turn  destroyed  l)y  fire  or  by  some 
enemy. 

8.  The  situation  of  Chicago  by  the  lake  gives  the  city 
fresh  breezes. 

What  kind  of  place  is  a  site  ?  What  is  a  situa- 
tion ? 

Exercise  138.  (^Oral.^  To  use  certain  verbs 
correctly. 

Accept,  except. 

1.  All  Cretans  are  liars,  runs  the  proverb  :  the  proverb 
excepts  none. 

2.  He  acrt'ptcil  the  invitation. 

Botli  words  have  the  idea  of  take.  How  is 
this  true  of  except? 

Affect,  effect. 

1.  Even  the  rumor  affected  his  belief,  changing  it 
slightly. 

2.  He  effected  a  junction  with  the  other  army. 

Which  of  these  words  could  properly  govern 
reconciliation?  mind?  health?  release?  conduct 
after  release  ?  destruction  ?  conscie^ice  ?  peace  of 


CORRECTNESS  IN    THE    USE   OF   WORDS      165 

mind?     Which  one  of  the  two  words  requires 
for  an  object  a  noun  expressing  an  action? 

Aggravate,  irritate,  tantalize. 

1.  Tantalus  was  tantalized  by  the  sight  of  inaccessible 
fruit. 

2.  He  aggravates  the  difficulty  by  trying  to  excuse  his 
act. 

3.  He  is  aggravating  his  cold  by  going  out. 

4.  He  irritates  me  by  his  teasing. 

5.  The  gravity  of  our  case  is  but  aggravated  by  delay. 

Allude,  mention. 

1.  Nobody  would  allude  to  an  experience  so  unpleasant 
to  all  that  party. 

2.  He  alluded  to  Washington  as  the  Fatlier  of  his 
Country. 

3.  He  mentioned  several  ways  of  accomplishing  the 
work;  then  he  went  back  to  his  duties,  not  alluding  to 
the  subject  again. 

Can  a  person  allude  to  a  thing  without 
assuming  knowledge  of  it  on  the  part  of  his 
audience  ?  Make  allusions  to  several  great 
men  without  meyitioning  their  names. 

Begin,  commence. 

These  words  are  often  interchangeable,  but 
commence  is  the  more  formal.  Beijiii  is  the 
better  word  ordinarily. 

Bring,  fetch. 

1.  Come  here  and  J)ring  the  l)ook. 


166      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

2.  Go  and  fetch  the  book. 

Define  these  two  words.  What  is  their 
common  idea? 

Claim,  assert,  etc. 

1.  Claim  means  to  assert  a  right  to  a  thing  as  one's 
own.  It  means  neither  to  say,  to  assert,  to  declare,  to 
maintain,  to  hold,  to  allege,  nor  to  contend. 

2.  He  claims  the  right  to  be  heard. 

3.  He  maintains  tliat  he  onght  to  be  heard. 

4.  He  asserts  tliat  such  is  the  fact. 

Note.  —  It  is  better  not  to  use  claim  with  the  conjunc- 
tion tltat. 

Degrade,  demean,  debase. 

1.  Being  in  disgrace,  tlie  captain  was  degraded  from 
his  rank. 

2.  He  demeans  himself  sometimes  well,  sometimes  ill. 

3.  He  debases  [or  degrades']  himself  by  his  profanity. 

Give  a  synonym  for  demean. 

Drank,  drunk. 

1.  The  horseman  drank  from  the  sj^ring,  and  after  he 
had  drunk  he  let  his  horse  drink. 

Drive,  ride. 

In  England  one  rides  only  when  one  is  on 
horseback ;  one  is  said  to  drive  if  in  a  carriage. 
In  America  one  drives  when  one  holds  the 
reins ;  but  we  go  driving  even  when  the  coach- 
man drives.     There  is  also  excellent  authority 


CORRECTNESS  IN    THE   USE   OF   ]VOIiDS      16T 

for  take  a  ride,  and  (/o  riding,   when    convey- 
ance in  a  carriage  is  meant. 

Endorse,  approve,  second. 

1.  He  secoiu/e'l  all  his  friend's  propositions. 

2.  He  endorsed  tlae  check  across  the  top. 

3.  He  appj-oved  the  candidate. 

What  is   a   dorsal  fin?      What  does  endorse 
mean,  by  etymology? 

Got,  gotten,  have. 

1.  Got  is  perhaps  preferable  to  gotten. 

2.  Don't  say  you've  got  a  thing  when  you  merely  have 
it,  without  having  secured  it. 

What  idea  is  common  to  get  and  have? 

Guess,  think,  reckon. 

1.  I  think  I  shall  go. 

2.  He  reckoned  the  cost  before  he  started. 

3.  I  guess  there  are  a  hundred. 

The  habitual  misuse  of  guess  is  an  American 
fault. 

Exercise  139.     (Ond.)    The  same    subject 

continued. 
Intend,  calculate. 

1.  She  received  his  apologies  with  a  resentment  they 
were  likely,  but  were  not  intended,  to  inspire. ^ 

2.  He  aimed  at  the  animal  a  l)lo\v  c(dcnlated  to  kill  it. 

3.  I  fully  intend  to  go,  but  cannot  cfdcu/nte  how  soon. 

1  A.  S.  Hill:  Foundations  of  Rhetoric,  p.  110  (Harpers). 


168      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  C02I POSITION 

Let,  leave. 

1.  Let  me  be  !     Don't  bother  me  when  I  want  to  study. 

2.  Let  me  alone  ! 

3.  Leave  me  alone  here. 

4.  Let  go  !     Unhand  me. 

Let  once  meant  "  to  hinder."  Now  it  means 
the  opposite  —  "  permit." 

Lie.  lay. 

1.  lie  /(///  down  on  the  sofa. 

2.  He  Ictid  the  book  down  on  the  table. 

3.  I  will  lot/  my  clean  linen  out,  and  then  lie  down. 

Locate,  settle. 

1.  He  located  his  house  there  (not  located  there). 

2.  He  settles  in  Chicago. 

Loan,  lend. 

It  is  not  incorrect  to  use  loa7i  in  the  sense  of 
lend,  but  lend  is  the  less  formal  word,  and  the 
preferable. 

May,  can. 

31(1^  it  not  be  said  that  any  person  who  has 
not  learned  the  difference  between  these  two 
words,  can  hardly  be  permitted  to  call  himself  a 
user  of  good  English  ? 

It  is  not  hard  to  see  why  people  confuse  these 
two  words.     Often  the  questioner  feels  that  the 


CORRECTNESS  IX   THE   USE  OF   ]VORDS      169 

refusal  of  his  request  will  make  a  barrier  over 
which  he  cannot  go.  When  he  says  "  Can  I 
go,"  he  is  feeling,  "  Will  j^ou  make  it  possible 
for  me  to  go?  for  unless  you  consent  I  cannot 
go  —  I  cannot  afford  to  go,  or  I  cannot  conscien- 
tiously, or  I  cannot  and  remain  on  right  terms 
with  you."  Nevertheless,  inai/  is  the  only  cor- 
rect word  to  use  in  asking  permission. 

Proved,  proven. 

1.  The  point  was  not  proved. 

2.  Verdict :  "  Not  proven." 

Proven  is  a  Scotch  legal  term,  wrongly  sup- 
posed by  some  persons  to  be  preferable  in  ordi- 
nary use  to  proved. 

Purpose,  propose. 

1.  One  can't  ;>;-o/:>ose  unless  he  proposes  something  to 
somebody. 

2.  One  can  puj-jwse  to  do  a  thing,  without  proposing  it 
to  any  one. 

How  do  both  these  words  contain  the  idea  of 
2)lacing  ? 

Raise,  rear. 

Men  are  reared ;  men  raise  cattle. 

Sit,  set. 

1 .  Set  the  eggs  under  the  lien ;  she  will  sit  on  them, 
and  so  become  a  sitting  hen. 


170      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

2.  Set  your  basket  on  the  table  and  set  yourself  down. 
Sll  down,  I  insist;  you  look  too  tired  to  stand. 

Stay,  stop. 

1.  He  stopped  at  Albany;  he  went  no  farther. 

2.  At  what  hotel  are  you  stai/ing,  these  days? 

Transpire,  happen. 

A  good  many  things  happened  that  dark  night  when 
the  boys  were  out  for  a  lai'k  ;  but  it  never  transpired  what 
really  did  happen ;  nothing  leaked  out  or  got  to  the  light. 

Spiro  means  "  to  breathe."  Trans  (across), 
when  in  composition,  means  "  tlirongh,"  "  out." 
Is  it  not  clear  how  the  present  use  of  the  word 
comes  about  ?  Exphxin.  Compare  the  words 
expire,  conspire,  inspire.  How  does  each  get 
its  present  meaning? 

Were,  v^as. 

1.  If  he  were  as  sti'ong  as  j'ou,  he  would  work  as  hard ; 
but  he's  not  so  strong. 

2.  If  he  ivas  present,  he  ought  to  have  stopped  the 

fight. 

Wish,  -want,  desire. 

1.  It  is  sometimes  correct  enough  to  say  ira7it  in  the 
place  of  wish. 

2.  You  shall  want  notliing;  all  shall  be  supplied. 

3.  You  shall  not  want  anything  you  may  desire. 

Which  idea  springs  out  of  the  other  —  want 
from  wish,  or  wish  from  want  .^ 


COREECTNESS    Z.V    THE   USE  OF    WORDS      171 

Exercise  140.  (  Oral.)  The  same  subject  con- 
tinued. —  Most  Americans  use  the  word  ivill 
too  frequentl}^  to  tlie  neglect  of  shall.  Nearly 
always  "  I  shall,"  "  we  shall,"  simply  foretell 
the  future  act.  "  I  shall  be  there  "  incidentally 
announces  the  speaker's  intention,  bnt  the  chief 
thing  it  announces  is  that  the  speaker  tvill  be 
there.  But  if  we  wish  to  foretell  a  future  act 
not  our  own,  we  say  "you  will,"  or  "-he  will," 
or  "  they  will."  This  rule  holds  in  conditional 
sentences,  thus  :  "  If  we  should  stay,  we  should 
be  glad  to  see  you." 

"  I  will,"  "  we  will,"  {)nplies  either  deliberate 
intention  or  distinct  ivilliiif/ness.  "  I  will  go " 
means  either  "  I  am  detei-mined  to  go,"  or,  "  I 
am  willing  to  go." 

Our  tirst  rule  is  accordingly  as  follows : 
To  indicate  mere  futurity.,  use  shall  in  the  first 
jjerson,  wull  in  the  second  and  third.  Uxamples  : 
"I  shall  be  glad  to  come.  You  and  the  others 
will  find  me  on  hand  at  the  pier."  So  far,  so 
good.  But  note  that  this  rule  also  applies  when 
the  speaker  is  made  to  report  his  own  words. 
"  Abner  sai/s  that  he  shall  be  glad  to  come,  and 
that  you  and  the  others  will  find  him  on  hand  at 
the  pier."  Just  so  if  the  indirect  discourse  is  in 
the  2^  a  St.,  and  it  is  still  the  speaker  who  reports 


172      A    FinST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

his  own  words.  "  Abner  said  tliat  he  sliould  be 
glad  to  come,  and  that  you  and  the  others 
•would  find  him  at  the  pier."  All  this  seems 
sensible  enougli,  for  the  speaker  is  merely  made 
to  foretell  his  own  future  act.  The  rule  is  too 
often  broken.  "•  Abner  said  he  was  afraid  he'd 
miss  the  boat."  Here  the  contraction  he'd 
stands  (as  alwa3'-s)  for  he  would,  whereas  the 
strictly  correct  form  is  he  should.  Tlie  same 
rule  applies  when  instead  of  such  a  word  as  saT/ 
we  have  think,  or  fear,  or  believe.  "  Luke 
thinks  he  shall  miss  his  boat,"  is  correct;  so  is, 
"  Luke  feared  he  should  miss  tlie  boat."  Rule  : 
After  verbs  of  saying,  thinkitig,  teUing,  and  the 
like,  shall  (or  should)  is  the  preferable  auxiliary 
if  the  future  act  is  foretold  by  the  actor. 

Now  we  are  ready  to  ask  how  these  words 
should  be  used  in  questions.  A  very  simple 
rule  is  enough  for  most  purposes :  In  tlie 
second  and  third  persons,  use  i)i  the  question  the 
form  you  e.rpect  in  the  ansiver. 

"Shall  you^  go  by  way  of  our  house,  Ab- 
ner?"     Abner     replies,     "I    certainly   shall." 

1  The  student  should  note  that  "  shall  you  go  ?  "  is  a 
pleasant  change  from  "  are  you  going  to  go  ?  "  The  Ameri- 
can boy  overworks  the  expressions  "  Are  you  going  to  ?  " 
"  I  am  going  to,"  etc. 


COnnECTNESS  IN   THE    USE   OF   WORDS      173 

"Will  you  kindly  bring  my  lunch  with  you? 
the  cook  has  it  ready."  "■  I  will,  with  great 
pleasure." 

Tlie  rule  holds  after  verbs  of  saying,  etc. 
Tlius :  ''  Abner's  aunt  asked  hiin  whether  he 
should  be  at  the  pier  by  three.  Abner  replied 
that  he  should.  Then  she  wanted  to  know  if 
he  would  kindly  bring  her  lunch  along;  Abner 
promised  that  he  u'ouhiy 

If  a  question  is  put  in  the  first  person,  shall 
often  asks  for  instructions  :  "  Shall  I  go  ?  "  But 
if  mere  information  is  asked,  shall  is  still  the 
form:  '■^ Shall  I  be  required  to  do  all  this?" 
"  Yes,  I  fear  you  will."  Briefly,  then,  for  a 
question  ill  the  first  person  alwai/s  use  shall. 

Where  blanks  appear  in  the  following  sen- 
tences insert  the  right  auxiliary.  Correct  any 
misuse  of  auxiliaries. 

1.  Sometimes  an  Trisliinan,  sometimes  a  Frenchman, 
is  credited  with  this  remark :  "  I  will  be  drowned ; 
nobody  shall  help  me." 

2.  I be  delighted  to  see  you  with  us. 

3.  T be  obliged  if  you lend  me  your  pencil. 

4.  The  director  thinks  he  be  able  to  sjieak  well 

of  that  student,  if  the  boy need  a  good  word. 

5.   you  be  content  if  you  get  to  college? 

6.    I  be  permitted  to  say  that  you  see  him 

before  anything  is  done  ? 

7.  Jim  Hawkins  was  mortally  afraid  that  he  be 


174      A    FIB  ST  3IANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

killed  by  Long  John   Silver ;    and  in  turn   Long  John 
began  to  fear  that  Jiin be  the  death  of  him. 

8.   you  like  some  bread?     [Here  should  is  the 

better  word ;  to  like  is  a  word  expressing  wish,  and  it  does 
not  need  the  auxiliary  wouUl.^ 

9.    you  mind  my  asking  where  you  bought  that 

jersey  ? 

10.  His   father   insisted   that   he   ■ stick    to    the 

task ;    and  the  son  afterwards  seemed  glad  of  the  fact, 

and  asked  whether  he  do  some  more  work  of  the 

same  sort. 

11.  If  we  were  l)etter,  we 1)6  happier. 

12.  In  which  sentence  can  a  contraction  of  he  ivould 

be  used  ?    (o)  He  said be  glad  to  accept,    (b)  Luther 

declared go  to  a  certain  city,  though  there  were  as 

many  devils  there  as  tiles  on  the  housetops. 

13.    I  be  asked  to  go  ?     Yes,  you  will. 

1-1.   Of  whom I  be  afraid? 

Exercise  141.  (^Writtai.')  Revise  past  themes 
ill  the  light  of  Exercises  136,  137,  138,  139,  and 
especially  140. 

Exercise  142.  (OraL)  To  use  certain  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs  correctly. 

All  right,  alright. 

All  right  is  all  right  as  English ;  alright  is  all 
wrong;  there  is  no  such  word. 

Anybody  elses,  anybody's  else. 

'"''Anybody  else's  dog  would  have  been  shot 


CORRECTNESS   IN   THE    USE  OF   WORDS      175 

for  his  sheep-stealing."  Auyhodys  else  is  often 
preferable  at  the  end  of  the  clause  or  sentence, 
thus :  "  If  the  dog  had  been  anyhody  else's,  it 
would  have  been  shot;  unfortunately  it  was 
yiohodys  else.''  The  distinction  has  ceased  to 
be  a  matter  of  logic,  and  become  a  matter  of 
euphony. 

Apt,  likely,  liable. 

1.  lie  is  aj>t  at  languages. 

2.  He  is  liLeli/  to  fail  if  lie  ilnes  not  properly  prepare 
himself.  [Here  apt  was  possible,  but  not  so  good  as 
likely.^ 

Apt  means  "  fitted,"  "  fit."  How  could  such 
an  idea  as  "  It  is  apt  to  rain  this  month  "  spring 
from  the  idea  of  Jit '? 

3.  He  is  llhilii  to  succeed  if  only  lie  tries. 

4.  He  is  liable  to  arrest  and  quarantine,  —  though  not 
likely  to  be  arrested,  —  merely  because  he  is  liable  to  come 
down  with  a  contagious  disease. 

With  what  kind  of  feeling  does  a  person  re- 
gard that  to  which  he  is  liahle  ? 

Bad,  badly. 

1.  Onions  smell  IkuI. 

2.  He  looks  morally  ha<l. 

3.  He  isn't  well;  he  is  looking  hadly. 

4.  Jones  is  running  limlhi  in  this  race. 


176      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

There  is  a  group  of  words  —  verbs  of  sensa- 
tion and  the  like,  look,  sound,  feel,  smell,  taste, 
appear,  seem  —  which  take  an  adjective  to  com- 
plete their  meaning.  "She  looks  stueet,'''  "It 
tastes  siveet,'^  "  She  seems  happy,"  are  common 
and  correct  ways  of  speaking.  Notice  that  here 
something  of  the  same  idea  can  he  given  hy  saying, 
"  She  is  sweet,"  "  It  is  sweet,"  "■  She  is  happy." 
The  siveet  idea  or  the  happy  idea  describes  the 
subject,  the  person,  not  the  verb.  Of  course, 
one  micTfht  write  a  sentence  in  which  the  siveet 
idea  would  tell  tlie  way  a  given  act  was  done. 
"  She  looked  sweetly "  would  imply  that  she 
was  gazing  sweetly  at  something  or  somebody. 

But  here  must  be  noted  an  exception  or  two. 
(r/)  The  word  had^  has  two  senses :  moral  bad- 
ness, and  badness  that  is  not  moral  —  badness 
of  health,  for  instance.  If  I  say  "  I  feel  bad," 
the  bad  seems  to  mean  moral  badness ;  i.e.  "  I 
am  bad."  It  is  therefore  permissible  to  break 
the  rule  and  apply  hadly  to  physical  feeling. 
"  I  feel  badly  "  is  a  common  expression  for  "  I 
feel  sick  "  ;  and  by  the  exception  to  the  rule  is 
correct.  Which  is  better  in  the  following  sen- 
tence —  had  or  hadly  ?     "  It  sounds to  hear 

a  young  man  swear."  (/>)  There  are  a  few 
cases  where  the  adverb  is  retained  when  the 


CORRECTNESS  IN    THE    USE   OF   WORDS      177 

verb  is  not  felt  as  acting.  "  The  report  sounds 
well,"  certainly  does  not  mean  that  the  report 
is  in  good  health  ;  but  it  is  certainly  good  Eng- 
lish. Similarly  we  have  :  "  She  appears  well  in 
company." 

Continual,  continuous. 

1.  A  continual  dropping  is  a  Biblical  phrase. 

2.  A  continuous  dropping  would  not  be  a  dropping  at 
all.     It  would  be  a  stream. 

What  idea  have  these  words  in  common  ? 

Either,  any. 

1.  Either  of  the  two  will  answer. 

2.  Any  of  the  three  will  answer. 

First  [not  firstly] . 

First,  it  is  desirable  to  buy  a  good  fountain  pen ;  sec- 
ondly., it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  clean. 

Funny,  odd. 

1.  It  is  odd  that  T  haven't  heard  of  this  before. 

2.  It  is  d,  funny  sight  to  see  Fido  trying  desperately  to 
catch  his  own  tail. 

Can  you  explain  sometliing  of  the  mental 
process  by  which  a  child  comes  to  ^-^y  funny  so 
frequently,  and  odd  or  strange  so  rarely?  Is 
it  all  a  matter  of  imitation,  or  is  there  some 
other  reason  ?  Are  not  things  oftener  strange 
to  a  child  than  funny  ? 


178      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Healthy,  healthful. 

Healthful  food  makes  a  health//  man. 

Give  a  synonym  for  healthful  as  applied  to 
food. 

Imminent,  eminent,  immanent. 

1.  The  eminent  Latin  writer,  Livy,  speaks  of  Hannibal's 
elephants  as  looming  up  —  eminentes  —  through  the  mist. 

2.  That  God  is  immanent  in  all  the  world  was  a  doc- 
trine of  the  Greek  fathers;  they  meant  that  He  pervades 
and  is  diffused  throughout  it. 

-S.  The  sword  of  Damocles  hung  imminent,  suspended 
by  a  hair. 

4.    He  is  in  imminent  danger  of  disgrace. 

With  which  two  of  these  words  is  the  idea 
of  threaten  connected?  Which  has  the  idea 
of  remain.,  or  stay  ? 

Last,  latest.  _ 

1.  The  last  page  of  the  book  is  done. 

2.  The  latest  news  from  the  patient  is  bad. 

Does  latest  imply  anything  as  to  the  future  ? 

Last,  preceding. 

1.  Let  each  paragraph  be  joined  smoothly  with  the 
preceding. 

2.  The  last  paragi'aph  ends  the  theme. 

Like.  as. 

1.  He  talks //Av  liis  father. 

2.  He  talks  as  his  father  talks. 

3.  I  want  some  pies  like  those  mother  used  to  make. 


COREECTNESS  IN    THE    USE  OF    WORDS      179 

Mad.  angry. 

1.  There  is  no  reason  for  being  angry. 

2.  Much  learning  hath  made  thee  ynad. 

3.  He  was  mad  with  rage  —  fairly  insane. 

Most,  almost. 

1.  Most  men  are  optimists. 

2.  A  Imost  every  man  loves  praise. 

EXEKCISE  143.  (^Oral.)  The  same  subject 
continued. 

Oral,  verbal. 

1.  Miles  Standish's  act  of  sending  the  Indians  a  snake- 
skin  filled  with  powder  and  ball,  was  a  message,  bnt  not 
a  verbal  message. 

2.  If  you  are  to  see  John,  let  me  send  him  this  oral 
message  :  Never  say  die. 

3.  The  corrections  did  not  affect  the  trvith  of  the 
statements,  but  only  the  manner:  they  were  verbal  cor- 
rections. 

4.  The  telegraph  operator  translates  into  verbal 
form  the  message  that  he  hears  in  the  ticking  of 
his  receiver. 

The  Latin  word  os  means  "  mouth  "  ;  the  Latin 
word  verhum  means  a  "word."  Do  oral  and 
verbal  keep  the  sense  of  the  Latin  words?  Can 
a  verbal  message  be  oral  ?  Can  an  oral  mes- 
sage be  verbal?  Is  an  oral  message  ordinarily 
verbal  ?  Can  you  imagine  an  oral  message 
that  is  not  verbal  ? 


180      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Posted,  informed. 

1.  Tlie  ledger  is  well  posted. 

2.  The  editor  is  well  informed. 

Can  you  see  the  slightest  reasonable  advan- 
tage in  speaking  of  a  person  as  well  posted? 
In  other  words,  does  this  commercial  slang  lend 
any  real  force  ? 

Practicable,  practical. 

His  scheme  won't  w-ork ;  it  isn't  practicahle.  I'm  afraid 
he  isn't  so  practical  a  schemer  as  we  thought. 

Quite.  Bome'what,  very,  rather,  entirely,  ■wholly 

1.  Quite  never  means  "very,"  "rather,"  or  "some- 
what."    It  means  "  wholly." 

2.  Harry  is  quite  well;  he  is  never  sick. 

3.  Yes,  I  like  him  rather  well. 

4.  Thauk  yon;  I'm  quite  myself  again. 

Curtail^  quite,  and  you  get  another  good  Eng- 
lish adjective  from  the  same  root.  How  is  this 
shorter  word  related  in  sense  to  the  longer? 
With  which  of  the  following  expressions  can 
quite  be  used?  well  (adj.),  sick,  recovered, 
pretty,  finished,  settled,  nice,  good,  assured, 
patient,  used  up,  satisfied,  a  good  deal,^  fine,  a 
hero,  a  way,  a  mile,  a  noise,  a  failure,  a  lot,  a 

1  Students  who  have  worked  at  puzzles  will  remember 
that  curtail  means  to  cut  off  the  last  letter. 

2  "Good  deal"  and  "great  deal"  are  equally  correct 
expressions.  Deal  is  Anglo-Saxon  dml,  meaning  share  or 
pa7't.     "  A  good  part,"  "  a  good  share  "  are  also  correct. 


CORRECTNESS  IN   THE   USE  OF   WORDS      181 

hundred,  a  few,  a  good  many,  a  million,  a  dozen, 
some,  well  (adv.),  a  while,  an  hour,  your  debtor, 
every  one,  all,  around,  through,  under,  over- 
thrown, down,  elated,  in  a  rage,  underestimate, 
vanquished,  quarrelsome,  lovely,  everywhere, 
crestfallen. 

Real,  really,  extremely. 

1.  I  think  he's  a  real  count. 

2.  I  think  he's  extremely  mean. 

3.  He's  really  a  very  fine  fellow. 

Parse  the  words  italicized  above. 

Some,  somewhat. 

1.  The  sick  man  is  somewhat  better  this  morning. 

2.  Some  men  have  greatness  thrust  upon  them. 

Parse  the  words  italicized  above. 

Some  place  else,  somew^here  else. 

lie  was  brought  up  aomeivhere  else  [not  some  place 
elsel . 

Underhand,  underhanded. 

He  acts  in  a  mean,  underhand  [not  underhanded^  wa}'. 

Exercise  144.  (Om/.)  ^4.  To  use  certain 
prepositions  and  conjunctions  correctly. 

But  that,  but  what. 

I  don't  know  but  that  you  may  doubt  it  when  I  say  so, 
but  I  assure  you  that  I  want  nothing  but  lohut  belongs 
to  me. 


182      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Different  from,  other  than. 

1.  Slie  is  different  /rom  other  girls  [not  than']. 

2.  She  is  different  from  other  girls,  and  nicer  [not 
different  and  nicer  than'\. 

3.  There  is  no  way,  other  than  incessant  revision,  by 
which  composition  can  be  mastered. 

During,  in  the  course  of. 

During  the  entire  day  we  watched  the  dreary  alkali 
desert  as  we  sped  across  it,  hoping  in  vain  that  in  the 
course  of  the  day  we  should  see  some  oasis. 

In,  into. 

1.  Bruno  looked  up  into  his  master's  face. 

2.  He  got  into  the  chariot. 

3.  He  sprang  into  the  lake,  while  T  stayed  in  the  boat. 

4.  Once  in  the  lake,  he  swam  round. 

What  difference  in  the  use  of  these  words  ? 

On  to,  onto. 

On  to  is  correct,  onto  incorrect.  Upon  is  bet- 
ter than  on  to  in  very  many  cases. 

Without,  miless. 

We  may  not  go  irifhout  permission ;  and  we  can't  get 
permission  imlesx  father  gets  home  by  noon. 

B.  To  choose  right  words  for  use  in  given  para- 
graphs.—  The  following  selections  are  from  John 
Ruskin.  Within  each  pair  of  brackets  a  word  is 
given,  sometimes  the  right  one,  sometimes  the 
wrong  one.     Study  the   meaning  of  each  sen- 


CORRECTNESS   IN   THE    USE   OF    WORUS      183 

tence,  and  satisfy  yourself  as  to  the  best  expres- 
sion for  each  place  in  question. 

1.  The  ennobling  difference  between  one  man  and 
another  —  between  one  animal  and  another  —  is  pre- 
cisely in  this,  that  one  feels  more  than  another.  If  we 
were  sponges,  perhaps  sensation  might  not  be  easily 
[gotten]  for  us;  if  we  were  earthworms,  [apt]  at  every 
instant  to  be  cut  in  two  by  the  spade,  perhaps  too  much 
sensation  might  not  be  good  for  us. 

2.  Very  ready  we  are  to  say  of  a  book,  "  How  good 
this  is  —  that's  exactly  what  I  think!"  But  the  right 
feeling  is,  "How  [odd]  that  is  !  I  never  thought  of  that 
before,  and  yet  I  see  it  is  true ;  or  if  I  do  not  now,  I 
hope  I  shall  some  day." 

3.  I  believe,  then,  with  this  exception,  that  a  girl's 
education  should  be  nearly,  in  its  course  and  material  of 
study,  the  same  as  a  boy's;  but  [entirely]  differently 
directed.  A  woman  in  any  rank  of  life  ought  to  know 
whatever  her  husband  is  [liable]  to  know,  but  to  know 
it  in  a  different  way. 

4.  T  do  not  blame  them  for  this,  but  only  for  their 
narrow  motive  in  this.  I  would  have  them  [want]  and 
[assert]  the  title  of  "  lady  "  provided  they  [allege]  not 
merely  the  title,  but  the  office  and  duty  signified  by  it. 

5.  But  now,  having  no  true  [avocation],  we  pour  our 
whole  masculine  energy  into  the  false  business  of  money- 
making. 

6.  Having  then  faithfully  listened  to  the  great 
teachers,  that  you  may  enter  into  their  thoughts,  you 
have  yet  this  higher  [advancement]  to  make,  —  you 
have  to  enter  into  their  hearts. 

7.  And,  lastly,  a  great  nation  does  not  mock  Heaven 
and  its  Powers  by  pretending  belief  in  a  revelation 
which  [asserts]  the  love  of  money  to  be  the  I'oot  of  all 


184      A   FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

evil,  and  [claiming],  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  actuated, 
and  [proposes]  to  be  actuated,  in  all  chief  national  deeds 
and  measures,  by  no  other  love. 

8.  But  an  education  "  which  shall  keep  a  good  coat 
on  my  son's  back ;  which  shall  [capacitate]  him  to  ring 
with  confidence  the  visitors'  bell  at  double-belled  doors ; 
which  shall  result  ultimately  in  the  establishment  of  a 
double-belled  door  to  his  own  [residence] — in  a  word, 
which  shall  lead  to  [advance]  in  life  —  this  we  pray  for 
on  bent  knees;  and  this  is  all  we  pray  for."  It  never 
seems  to  occur  to  the  parents  that  there  may  be  an 
education  which  in  itself  is  [advance]  in  Life ;  that  any 
other  than  that  may  perhaps  be  [advancement]  in  Death; 
and  that  this  essential  education  might  be  more  easily 
[gotten]  or  given,  than  they  [guess],  if  they  set  about  it 
in  the  right  way,  while  it  is  for  no  price  and  by  no  favor 
to  be  [got],  if  they  set  about  it  in  the  wrong. 

9.  The  chance  and  scattered  evil  that  may  here  and 
there  haunt,  or  hide  itself  in,  a  powerful  book,  never 
does  any  harm  to  a  noble  girl;  but  the  emptiness  of  an 
author  oppresses  her,  and  his  amiable  folly  [degrades] 
her.  And  if  she  can  have  [access]  to  a  good  library  of 
old  and  classical  books,  there  need  be  no  choosing  at  all. 
Keep  the  modern  magazine  and  novel  out  of  your  girl's 
way ;  turn  her  loose  into  the  old  library  every  day,  and 
[let]  her  alone. 

ExEiicrsE  145.  (Writtoi.)  Revise  past  themes 
in  the  light  of  Exercises  141,  142,  143,  and  144. 


CHAPTER   VI 

LETTER-WRITING   AS    A    FORM   OF    COMPOSITION 

Exercise  146.    {Oral.}    To  note  the  niies  of 

clearness  and  courtesy  in  letter-vrriting.  —  There  are 
two  general  classes  of  letters :  informal  or  per- 
sonal, and  formal  or  impersonal.  Each  kind  is  gov- 
erned by  the  general  principles  of  clearness  and 
courtesy.  Mischief  is  sure  to  follow  if  either 
of  these  principles  is  disregarded.  A  writer 
may  indulge  in  extravagance  of  statement  when 
he  writes  for  the  public,  and  "  there  is  no  harm 
done,  for  the  speaker  is  one  and  the  listener  is 
another."  ^  But  it  is  quite  a  different  matter 
when  one  is  making  business  promises,  or  trying 
to  pacify  a  distant  friend  with  whom  there  is  a 
misunderstanding.  A  shrewd  politician  knows 
enough  not  to  write  too  many  letters,  and  not 
to  write  anything  that  he  cannot  stand  by.  A 
woman  of  tact  knows  that  the  success  of  some 

^  The  Turkish  Cadi  to  the  English   Traveller.     James, 
Psycholofjy,  II.  040. 

185 


186      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

social  plan  may  turn  upon  the  choice  of  a  sin- 
gle word  in  the  leave-taking  of  a  note. 

Business  Letters.  —  These  are  formal,  imper- 
sonal. A  good  business  letter  is  (1)  clear, 
(2)  courteous,  (3)  brief.  It  shows  unmistaka- 
bly («)  who  is  writing,  (^)  where,  (c)  when, 
(^d)  to  whom.  It  is  definite  in  its  language,  so 
that  no  inquiry  need  be  made  as  to  any  part 
of  its  meaning.  It  observes  the  best  conven- 
tions of  address  and  signature.  It  refrains  from 
brusque  i-emarks,  even  in  reply  to  a  rude  letter. 
It  is  appreciative.  A  good  business  man  always 
takes  into  account  that  a  handful  of  trade  is  a 
handful  of  gold ;  if  he  is  favored  with  orders, 
he  goes  to  the  trouble  of  tlianking  his  customers. 
It  does  not  curtly  abbreviate  sentences  and 
signatures.  Life  is  not  so  short  but  that  we 
may  avoid  penning  such  insults  as  this  :  ''  Y'rs 
rec'd  and  contents  noted.  Have  ordered  Jones 
to  push  the  deal  through.  Shall  see  you  soon. 
Y'rs  etc." 

Headings  and  Signatures  in  Business  Letters.  —  A 
business  letter  sliould  show  where  it  was  written, 
and  where  the  answer  should  be  sent.  If  these 
places  are  the  same,  the  one  address  may  be  in- 
dicated either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end, 
preferably    the    former.       Street    and    number 


LETTER    WRITING  187 

should  always  be  given  in  the  case  of  city  ad- 
dresses. The  date  of  writing  should  be  placed 
at  the  beginning,  the  month  being  written  or 
abbreviated,  not  indicated  by  a  figure.  The 
heading  ouo-ht  also  to  indicate  to  whom  the 
letter  is  sent.  Since  in  theory  or  in  fact  there 
may  be  other  persons  of  the  same  name,  the  cor- 
respondent's address  shoidd  usually  be  placed 
beneath  his  name.  The  most  common  signa- 
tures in  business  letters  are  Yours  tndy^  Yours 
very  truly^  and  Very  truly  yours.  In  writing  a 
business  letter,  a  girl  signs  her  full  name.  She 
may  place  (Miss}  before  it  in  parentheses ;  but 
the  better  plan  is  to  write,  at  the  left  of  her  sig- 
nature, her  name  and  address  as  she  wishes  it 
written,  and  above  it  the  direction  "  Please 
address."     For  example  :  — 

Yours  truly, 

Helen  Eoe. 
Please  address :  — 
Miss  Helen  Roe, 

G  rays  vi  lie, 

Penna. 

Titles  in  business  letters.  —  Firm  names  need 
not  be  preceded  by  3Iessrs.,  although  this  form 
certainly  adds  to  the  courtesy  of  the  communi- 
cation. Names  of  individuals  should  regularly 
be  preceded  by  3Ir.     Whether  a  person  should 


188      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

be  addressed  by  his  professional  title  depends 
somewhat  upon  the  character  of  the  business. 
I71  the  United  States  a  commercial  letter  is  suffi- 
ciently courteous  if  Mr.  precedes  the  name  of  the 
'person  addressed.  This  title  is  in  better  taste, 
as  applied  to  business  men,  than  Esq.  But  there 
is  no  objection  to  the  use  of  certain  titles,  and 
they  are  desirable  if  the  business  be  one  which 
pertains  to  the  profession  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed. Initials  should  always  be  given. 
"  Rev.  Brown,"  "  Hon.  Jones,"  are  inexcusable 
forms. 

The  envelope.  —  The  address  on  the  envelope 
should  be  as  legible  as  possible.  Names  of  states 
should  preferably  not  be  contracted.  As  Pro- 
fessor J.  M.  Hart  remarks,  "  The  only  current 
abbreviations  that  seem  to  be  safe  are  Penna., 
Conn.,  and  D.C."  1  New  York  City  may  be 
written  for  New  York,  N.Y.  The  same  rules 
for  titles  apply  to  the  envelope  as  to  the  head- 
ing. If  the  comma  is  placed  after  one  line  of 
the  address,  it  must  be  placed  after  the  others. 
It  is  needed  after  none. 

Exercise  147.    (Writteyi.^    To  write  a  clear 

and   courteous   business   letter,   and   a  petition.  — 

1  Handbook  of  EiujUsh  Composition,  p.  348  (Eldredge  & 
Bro.). 


LETTER    WIIITI^^G  189 

Write  a  business  letter,  replying  clearly  and 
courteously  to  the  following  imaginary  com- 
munication :  — 

14  Grasmere  Street, 

BosTOx,  Massachusetts, 

Dec.  4,  1897. 
Miss  Helen  Roe, 

Graysville,  Penna. 

Dear  Madam :  — 

AVe  beg  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  yoixr 
order  of  Dec.  2.  Since  you  mention  the  fact  that  the 
goods  are  intended  as  a  Christmas  surprise,  we  liave 
taken  the  liberty  of  holding  them,  and  writing  for 
orders  as  to  desired  date  of  shipment  to  the  address 
you  specify.      We  remain. 

Very  respectfully  yours. 

Weaver  &  Weaver. 

Write  a  petition  to  some  person  or  persons  in 
authority,  following  in  general  the  form  given 
below :  — 
The  Faculty  of  Le\vis  Institute. 

Gentlemen:  We,  the  undersigned,  respectfully  ask  the 
privilege  of  organizing  a  new  literary  society,  to  be  called 
the  Parnassian.  We  enclose  a  copy  of  the  proposed  con- 
stitution, which  we  are  ready  to  sign.  If  further  infor- 
mation is  desired,  we  shall  be  glad  to  appoint  a  committee 
to  wait  upon  you  at  any  time  you  may  designate. 

C.  E.  Bates, 
H.  BuLKLEY,  etc. 


190      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

Exercise  148.  {Written.^  To  write  a  cour- 
teous note  to  a  stranger.  —  A  note  is  always  less 
formal  than  a  letter,  and  usually  shorter.  Occa- 
sions sometimes  arise  for  writing  notes  to 
strangers.  Such  notes  are  often  requests  or 
answers  to  inquiries.  They  are  much  less  for- 
mal than  business  letters,  much  more  formal 
than  notes  to  acquaintances  or  friends.  Write 
a  courteous  reply  to  the  following  imaginary 
note  from  a  stranger :  — 

Plainfield,  Xew  Jersey, 

March  7,  1899. 
My  dear  Sir  :  ^ 

I  see  by  the  nioi'uing  paper  that  a  homing 
pigeon  has  been  found  by  you,  and  that  you  are  at  a  loss 
to  know  where  it  belongs.  I  venture  to  suggest,  on  not- 
ing the  mention  of  the  tiny  aluminum  box  containing 
a  cipher  message,  that  the  bird  may  belong  to  the  Xaval 
Academy  at  Annapolis.  A  note  addressed  to  Professor 
Henri  Marion,  the  inventor  of  the  little  box,  would  solve 

the  riddle. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Herbert  Taylor. 
Mr.  F.  Joxes, 

Feltville,  Xew  Jersey. 

Exercise  149.    (Oral  and  Written.^   How  to 

use     the     dash     properly.  —  Read    the    following 
passages  aloud :  — 

1  Note  that  "dear'"  begins  with  a  small  letter. 


LETTER    WRITING  191 

1.  Modern  methods  of  advanced  instruction  in  our 
schools  have  changed  the  three  K's  to  the  three  H's, — 
the  hand,  the  head,  the  heart. 

2.  Sham  is  not  dead  yet,  but  he  is  the  next  best  or 
next  worse  thing,  —  he  is  unfasliionable  ;  and  now  imita- 
tions, whether  of  manners  or  of  marbles,  of  diamonds  or 
of  devotion,  of  character  or  of  complexion,  are  marks  of 
a  vulgar  and  uncultivated  mind.  —  W.  T.  8.  IIewktt: 
Notes  for  Bof/s. 

The  dash  is  correctly  used  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding selections.  In  both  cases  it  produces  a 
certain — what?  is  it  not  a  certain  suspense? 
This  suspense  in  both  cases  precedes  a  summing 
up  of  that  which  has  been  said  just  before. 
Show  that  this  is  so. 

Read  also  the  following :  — 

To  read  well,  —  that  is,  to  read  true  ])ooks  in  a  true 
spirit,  —  is  a  noble  exerci.se,  and  one  that  will  task  the 
reader  more  than  any  exercise  which  the  customs  of  the 
day  esteem.  It  recjuires  a  training  such  as  the  athletes 
underwent,  the  steady  intention  almo.st  of  the  whole  life 
to  this  object.  Books  must  Ije  read  as  deliberately  and 
reservedly  as  they  were  written.  —  Hp:xry  D.  Thoheai:  : 
Walden. 

Point  out  the  parenthetical  clause.  Here  the 
dashes  do  not  exactly  indicate  suspense.  They 
intensify  the  parenthetical  expression,  showing 
a  greater  degree  of  disconnection  than  is  shown 
by  the  connna ;  they  make  the  parenthesis  seem 
like  a  break  in  the  chain  of  thought. 


192      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Read  also  the  following  :  — 

"  The  fruit  of  the  bread-tree  consists  principally  of  hot 
rolls.  The  butter-muffin  variety  is  supposed  to  be  a 
hybrid  with  the  cocoanut  pahu,  the  cream  found  on  the 
milk  of  the  cocoanut  exuding  from  the  hybrid  in  the 
shape  of  butter,  just  as  the  ripe  fruit  is  splitting,  so  as  to 
fit  it  for  the  tea-table,  where  it  is  conunonly  served  up 
with  cold  —  " 

—  There  —  I  don't  want  to  read  any  more  of  it.  — 
Charles  Lamb. 

What  effect  has  the  dash  after  "  cold"  ? 
The  sentence  snddenly  — 
In  conclusion,  read  the  following  extract  from 
a  letter :  — 

I  just  love  to  keep  house  —  I  have  my  washing  and 
ironing  done  away — and  a  woman  to  help  me  once  a 
week  —  I  haven't  a  carpet  in  the  house  —  all  hardwood 
floors  and  matting  —  and  everything  just  the  way  I 
want  —  my  kitchen  is  a  dreatn  —  I  have  a  gas  range 
too  —  To  us  it  is  perfection  —  It's  just  a  piece  of  heaven 
on  earth  — 

What  is  the  fault  in  punctuation  in  this 
passage  ? 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  149 :  Use  the  dash  to 
indicate   either   suspense   or  a  sudden   break  in  the 
thought,  but  never  use  it  as  a  period- 
Revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of  this  con- 
clusion. 


LETTER    WUITING  193 

ExEKCi.SE  150.  {Oral  and  Written.}  How- 
to  use  the  interrogation  point  properly.  — Head 
the  following  passages  aloud  :  — 

1.  Shall  we  gain  strength  by  lying  still?  Shall  we 
aspire  to  nothing?  try  nothing?  do  notliing? 

2.  "How  can  a  man  come  to  know  himself?"  asked 
Goethe.     "Never  by  thinking,  but  by  doing." 

3.  "What  is  the  use  of  thee,  thou  gnarled  sapling?" 
said  a  young  larch  tree  to  a  young  oak.  "  I  grow  three 
feet  in  a  year,  thou  scarcely  as  many  inches ;  I  am  straight 
and  taper  as  a  reed,  tliou  straggling  and  twisted  as  a 
loosened  withe."  "  And  thy  duration,"  answered  the 
oak,  "is  some  third  part  of  man's  life,  and  I  am  ap- 
pointed to  flourish  for  a  thousand  years.  Thou  art  felled 
and  sawed  into  palings,  where  thou  rottest  and  art  burnt 
after  a  single  summer;  of  me  are  fashioned  battle-ships, 
and  I  carry  mariners  and  heroes  into  unknown  seas."  — 
Carlyle. 

What  facts  do  you  observe  in  the  preceding 
selections  concerning  the  use  of  the  interroga- 
tion point  ? 

What  fault  do  you  observe  in  the  punctuation 
of  the  following  sentences:  — 

"  Is  not  one  man  as  good  as  another,"  asked 
the  socialist.  "  Why,  pray,"  replied  tlie  mill- 
owner. 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  150  :  Use  the  interroga- 
tion point  at  the  end  of  every  question,  even  if  this  be 
but  a  part  of  a  sentence, 
o 


194      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

Revise  past  tliemes  in  tlie  light  of  this  con- 
clusion. 

EXEKCISE  151.  {Written.~)  To  write  three 
formal  social  notes.  —  Following  in  general  tlie 
models  given  below,  write  (1)  a  formal  invita- 
tion to  dinner  ;  (2)  an  acceptance  of  this  in- 
vitation ;   (3)  regrets  at  inability  to  accept. 

1.  Mr.    Frederick   Estoff,  Jr.,  requests  the  pleasure  of 

Mr.  Edward  Edward's  company  at  dinner  on  Tues- 
day, June  sixth,  at  seven  o'clock,  to  meet  Mr.  aud 
Mrs.  Frederick  P^stolf. 

12  Pear  Street,  May  twentieth,  1899. 

2.  ]\Ir.  Edward  Edward  accepts  with  much  pleasure  the 

kind  invitation  of  Mr.  Frederick  Estoff,  Jr.,  to  din- 
ner for  June  sixth,  to  meet  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Frederick 

Estoff. 

14  Sycamore  Street,  i\Iay  twenty-third,  ^  1899. 

3.  Mr.  P>lward    Edward  regrets  extremely  that  a  pre- 

vious e]igagement  prevents  his  acceptance  of  Mr. 
Frederick  Estoff,  Jr.'s  kind  invitation  to  dinner  for 
June  sixth,  to  meet  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Frederick  Estoff. 

14  Sycamore  Street,  May  twenty-third,  1899. 

Exercise   152.     (^Written.')      To  write  two 

informal  notes,  one  of  acceptance,  one  of  regrets. — 

Informal  notes  may  be  somewhat  informal,  as 

1  Kote  the  hyphen. 


LETTER    WRITING  195 

when  one  addresses  an  older  friend,  or  very 
informal,  as  when  one  addresses  an  intimate 
friend  of  one's  own  age.  Write  an  acceptance 
for  each  of  the  following  invitations.  Address 
the  "  instructor  "  as  "  My  dear  Mr.  Evarts," 
and  sign  yourself  to  him  as  "  Very  respectfully 
yours  "  or  "Affectionately  your  pupil." 

yOO  South  Prairie  Avenue, 
1,  Chicago,  Illinois, 

July  17,  1899. 
My  dear  Tom  :  — 

A  few  days  after  school  closed  I  received  a 
very  interesting  box  of  seaweeds  from  a  friend  who  is  in 
Alaska.  They  were  too  late  to  be  shown  to  the  class, 
but  I  know  you  will  hardly  like  to  miss  them.  Suppose 
you  come  to  lunch  day  after  to-morrow,  at  one,  if  you  are 
free.  Ask  your  cousin  Horace  to  come  if  he  is  staying 
"With  you.     Drop  me  a  note,  for  Mrs.  Evarts's  sake. 

Faithfully  yours, 

G.  M.  R.  Evarts. 
Mr.  Tom  EdcxRen, 

10074  South  Prairie. 


Dear  Tom 


July  18,  1899. 


Why  can't  you  come  to  lunch  to-morrow?  Both 
sisters  are  home  from  boarding  school,  and  I  dare  say 
they  will  tolerate  you  if  you  put  in  an  appearance.     Katy 

always  has  lunch  on  at  one. 

Yours, 

Fred. 


196      A   FIEST  3IANUAL   OF   COMPOSITION 

ExEKCiSE  153.  (Written.)  After  hearing 
the  following  informal  note  read,  ask  the 
meaning  of  any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  re- 
produce it,  using :  received,  illegible,  very 
pleasant,  pleasanter,  decipher,  mastered,  signa- 
nature,  guessed,  singular,  perpetual,  novelty. 

AN    ILLEGIBLE    LETTER 

It  is  said  of  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  that  he  once  re- 
ceived a  letter  from  his  friend,  Professor  Edward  S. 
Morse,  and  found  the  handwriting  wholly  illegible. 
Mr.  Aldrich  was  not  at  a  loss  for  an  answer.  In  due 
time,  there  came  to  Mr.  Morse  the  following  reply :  — 

"311/  dear  Morse:  It  was  very  pleasant  to  receive  a 
letter  from  you  tlie  other  day.  Perhaps  I  should  have 
found  it  pleasanter  if  I  had  been  able  to  decipher  it.  I 
don't  think  I  mastered  anything  beyond  the  date,  which 
I  knew,  and  the  signature,  at  which  I  guessed. 

"  There  is  a  singular  and  perpetual  charm  in  a  letter 
of  yours  —  it  never  grows  old,  and  it  never  loses  its 
novelty.  One  can  say  every  morning  as  one  looks  at  it : 
'Here's  a  letter  of  ]\Iorse's  I  haven't  read  yet.  I  think  I 
shall  take  another  shy  at  it  to-day,  and  maybe  I  shall  be 
able  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  to  make  out  what  he 
means  by  those  t's^  that  look  like  w's,  and  those  i's  that 
haven't  any  eyebrows.' 

"  Other  letters  are  read,  and  thrown  away  and  for- 
gotten, but  yours  are  kept  forever — unread.  One  of 
them  will  last  a  reasonable  man  a  lifetime." 

1  Note  that  the  plural  of  single  letters  and  words  is  made 
by  using  the  apostrophe.  Compare  the  phrase  "too  many 
amVs.'''' 


LETTER    WRITING  197 

Exercise  154.  (^Written.)  To  write  a  per- 
sonal letter.  —  The  letter  one  writes  informally 
to  a  friend  or  a  relative,  sliould  be  in  tone 
pretty  nearly  what  one's  conversation  with  the 
given  person  would  be.  To  give  such  a  letter 
the  tone  which  represents  exactly  the  relation 
between  the  two  people  is  a  liard  task.  The 
nicest  sense  of  tact  is  required  in  order  not  to 
be  too  stiff  and  not  too  familiar.  Personal 
letters  demand  the  art  of  colloquial  composi- 
tion. Those  unperceptive  persons  who  have 
but  one  style  of  composition,  — tliat  of  a  book, 
or  that  of  a  clerk,  —  make  sorry  work  of  per- 
sonal letters.  Suppose  that  you  have  always 
known  one  of  these  persons.  You  have  played 
with  him,  read  with  him,  perhaps  fought  with 
him.  When  you  meet,  he  calls  you  by  your 
first  name.  When  he  writes  to  ask  you  to 
visit  him,  he  addresses  you  as  Dear  Sir,  and 
signs  himself  HespecffuUi/ !  His  letter  gives 
you  a  chill.  There  is  too  little  of  the  personal 
letter-writing  of  the  better  sort,  the  leisurely, 
careful,  courteous,  old-fashioned  kind  of  writ- 
ten talk,  —  writing  that,  like  Thomas  Cholmon- 
deley's,  could  be  signed,  "•  Ever  yours  and  not 
in  haste." 

Write  to  some  friend  a  real  letter,  such  as 


198      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

will  be  appropriate.  This  letter  will  not  be 
read  by  any  member  of  the  class,  —  unless  the 
friend  happens  to  belong  to  the  class. 

Exercise  155.  {Ond  and  Written.')  When 
to  use  the  exclamation  point.  —  Read  aloud  the 
following  selections  :  — 

1.  "A  youth  thoughtless,  when  all  the  happiness  of 
his  home  forever  depends  on  the  chances  or  the  passions 
of  an  hour!  "  exclaims  Ruskin. 

2.  Dr.  Livingstone  came  across  tribes  in  the  interior 
of  Africa  who  had  never  seen  a  looking-glass,  or  any  of 
its  substitutes.  Once,  when  some  of  them  were  looking 
at  their  own  faces  in  his  mirror,  and  seeing  for  the  first 
time  how  they  looked,  he  heard  them  exclaiming  about 
themselves,  "  How  ugly  I  look !  "  "  What  a  queer  fel- 
low ! "     "  What  a  homely  nose  !  " 

3.  Do  not  think  tlie  youth  has  no  force  because  he 
cannot  speak  to  you  and  me.  Hark !  in  the  next  room, 
who  spoke  so  clear  and  emphatic?  Good  Heaven !  it  is 
he  !  it  is  that  very  lump  of  bashfulness  and  phlegm  which 
foi-  weeks  has  done  nothing  but  eat  when  you  were  by, 
that  now  rolls  out  these  words  like  bell-strokes.  Tt 
seems  he  knows  how  to  speak  to  his  contemporaries. 
Bashful  or  bold,  then,  he  will  know  how  to  make  us 
seniors  very  unnecessary.  —  Emersox  :  Self-Reliance. 

What  facts  do  you  observe  in  these  passages 

concerning  the  use  of  the  exclamation  point  ? 

Read  now  the  following  :  — 

The  president  of  the  London  Chamber  of  Commerce 
gives  twelve  maxims  which  he  has  tested  through  years 


Letter  writing  199 

of   business  experience,   and  wliich    lie   recommends  as 
tending  to  ensure  success  :  — 

1.  Have  a  definite  aim. 

2.  Go  straight  for  it. 

3.  Master  all  details. 

4.  Always  know  more  than  you  are  expected  to 
know. 

5.  Remember  tliat  difficulties  are  only  made  to  over- 
come. 

6.  Treat  failures  as  stej^ping-stones  to  further  effort. 

7.  Never  put  your  hand  out  farther  than  you  can 
draw  it  back. 

8.  At  times  be  bold  ;  always  prudent. 

9.  The  nunority  often  beats  the  majority  in  the  end. 

10.  Make  good  use  of  other  men's  brains. 

11.  Listen  well ;  answer  cautiously ;  decide  promptly. 

12.  Preserve,  by  all  means  in  your  power,  "a  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body." 

Are  tliese  maxims  command.s?  or  only  di- 
rections or  recommendations  couched  in  the 
imperative  ?  How  should  an  emphatic  com- 
mand be  punctuated  ? 

Conclusion  under  Exercise  155  :  Use  the  exclama- 
tion point  after  a  w^ord,  clause,  or  sentence  that  is 
truly  exclamatory  in  thought. 

Revise  past  themes  in  the  light  of  this  con- 
clusion. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  LONG  THEME,  A  CHAIN  OF  PARA- 
GRAPHS 

Exercise  156.    (JVntfen.')   To  copy  a  dialogue 

correctly,  using  indentions  and  quotation  marks. — 
The  long  theme  is  a  chain  of  paragraphs,  just 
as  the  paragraph  is  a  chain  of  sentences.  Be- 
fore attempting  to  compose  a  long  theme,  we 
may  properly  spend  a  little  practice  in  growing 
familiar  with  its  external  form.  Copy  the 
following  dialogue,  taking  care  to  get  the  in- 
dentions right  (see  pages  7-8),  and  the  quota- 
tion marks  in  place. 

THE   MEETIXG   OF    STANLEY   AND   LIVINGSTONE 

Suddenly  I  hear  a  voice  on  my  right  say  :  — 

"Good  morning,  sir!  " 

Startled  at  hearing  this  greeting  in  the  midst  of  such  a 
crowd  of  black  people,  I  turn  sharply  around  in  search  of 
the  man,  and  see  him  at  my  side,  with  the  blackest  of 
faces,  but  anhnated  and  joyous  —  a  man  dressed  in  a  long 
white  shirt,  with  a  turban  of  American  sheeting  around 
his  woolly  head,  and  I  ask :  — 
200 


THE  LONG   THEME  201 

"  Who  the  mischief  are  you  ?  " 

"  I  am  Susi,  the  servant  of  Dr.  Livingstone,"  said  he, 
smiling,  and  showing  a  gleaming  row  of  teeth. 

"  What !     Is  Dr.  Livingstone  here  ?  " 

"  Yes,  sir." 

"  In  this  village  ?  " 

"  Yes,  sir." 

"  Are  you  sure  ?  " 

"  Sure,  sure,  sir.     Why,  I  leave  him  just  now."  .  .  . 

"  Now,  you  Susi,  run,  and  tell  the  Doctor  I  am  coming." 

"  Yes,  sir,"  and  off  he  darted  like  a  madman.  .  .  . 

In  the  meantime  the  head  of  the  expedition  had  halted, 
and  the  kirangozi  was  out  of  the  ranks,  holding  his  flag 
aloft,  and  Selim  said  to  me  :  "  I  see  the  Doctor,  sir.  Oh, 
what  an  old  man  !  He  has  got  a  white  beard."  And  I 
—  what  would  I  not  have  given  for  a  bit  of  friendly  wil- 
derness, where,  unseen,  I  might  vent  my  joy  in  some 
mad  freak,  such  as  idiotically  biting  my  hand,  turning  a 
somersault,  or  slashing  at  trees,  in  order  to  allay  those 
exciting  feelings  that  were  well-nigh  uncontrollable.  My 
heart  beats  fast,  but  I  must  not  let  my  face  betray  my 
emotions,  lest  it  shall  detract  from  the  dignity  of  a  white 
man  appearing  under  such  extraordinary  circumstances. 

So  I  did  that  which  I  thought  was  most  dignified.  I 
pushed  back  the  crowds,  and,  passing  from  the  rear, 
walked  down  a  living  avenue  of  people,  until  I  came  in 
front  of  the  semicircle  of  Arabs,  in  the  front  of  which 
stood  the  white  man  with  the  gray  beard.  As  I  advanced 
slowly  toward  him  I  noticed  he  was  pale,  looked  wearied, 
had  a  gray  beard,  wore  a  bluish  cap  with  a  faded  gold 
band  round  it,  had  on  a  red-sleeved  waistcoat,  and  a  pair 
of  gray  tweed  trousers.  I  would  have  run  to  him,  only  I 
was  a  coward  in  the  presence  of  such  a  mob ;  would  have 
embraced  him,  only,  he  being  an  Englishman,  I  did  not 
know  how  he  would  receive  me;  so  I  did  what  cowardice 


202      A   FIEST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

and  false  pride  suggested  was  the  best  thing;  walked 
deliberately  to  him,  took  off  my  hat  and  said  :  — 

"Dr.  Livingstone,  I  presume?" 

"Yes,"  said  he,  with  a  kind  smile,  lifting  his  cap 
slightly. 

I  replace  my  hat  on  my  head,  and  he  puts  on  his  cap, 
and  we  both  grasp  hands,  and  I  then  say  aloud :  — 

"  I  thank  God,  Doctor,  I  have  been  permitted  to  see 
you." 

He  answered :  "I  feel  thankful  that  I  am  here  to  wel- 
come you."  —  Henry  M.  Stanley:  How  I  Found  Liv- 
ingstone. 

Exercise  157.  (  Written.")  Invent  a  dialogne 
and  write  it  down,  using  indentions  and  quota- 
tion marks  correctly.  Some  subject  of  current 
interest  in  the  life  of  the  school  may  furnish  a 
good  topic,  as,  "  Two  students  discuss  the  pres- 
ent condition  of  the  literary  societies."  Be 
careful  to  place  a  comma  after  any  vocative 
word  or  words,  thus  :  '^  Say,  Will,"  or  "•  Look 
here,  sir";  also  after  such  words  as  "Yes," 
"Why,"  "Well,"  "Yes,  sir,"  "Why,  now," 
"Well,  then." 

Exercise  158.  {Written.")  After  hearing 
the  following  selection  read,  ask  the  meaning 
of  any  unfamiliar  words.  Then  reproduce  it, 
using :  haste,  framed,  raising,  uncommonly, 
unobserved,  dimensions,  warped,  brittle,  peren- 


THE  LONG    THEME  203 

nial,  dank,  dust-hole,  bargain,  possession,  trans- 
ferred, tolerable,  staples,  spikes,  sloping, 
woodcliuck,  sumach,  stain,  vegetation,  shelv- 
ing, latitudes,  equable,  splendid,  roots,  super- 
structure, dent,  porch,  burrow,  acquaintances, 
improve,  neighborliness,  loftier  structures, 
feather-edged,  impervious,  hoeing. 

THOREAU'S    HOUSE-BUILDING 

By  the  middle  of  April,  for  I  made  no  haste  in  my 
work,  but  rather  made  the  most  of  it,  my  house  was 
framed  and  ready  for  the  raising.  I  had  already  bought 
the  shanty  of  James  Collins,  an  Irishman  who  worked  on 
the  Fitchburg  Railroad,  for  boards.  James  Collins' 
shanty  was  considered  an  uncommonly  fine  one.  When 
I  called  to  see  it  he  was  not  at  home.  I  walked  about 
the  outside,  at  first  unobserved  from  within,  the  window 
was  so  deep  and  high.  It  was  of  small  dimensions,  with 
a  peaked  cottage  roof,  and  not  much  else  to  be  seen,  the 
dirt  being  raised  five  feet  all  around.  The  roof  was  the 
soundest  part,  though  a  good  deal  warped  and  made 
brittle  by  the  sun.  Door-sill  there  was  none,  but  a  per- 
ennial passage  for  the  hens  under  the  door  board.  Mrs. 
C.  came  to  the  door  and  asked  me  to  view  it  from  the 
inside.  The  hens  were  driven  in  by  my  approach.  It 
was  dark,  and  had  a  dirt  floor  for  the  most  part,  dank, 
clammy,  and  aguish,  only  here  a  board  and  there  a  board 
which  would  not  bear  removal.  She  lighted  a  lamp  to 
show  me  the  inside  of  the  roof  and  the  walls,  and  also 
that  the  board  floor  extended  under  the  bed,  warning  me 
not  to  step  into  the  cellar,  a  sort  of  dust-liole  two  feet 
deep.     In  her  own  words,  they  were  "  good  boards  over- 


204      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

head,  good  boards  all  around,  and  a  good  window,"  —  of 
two  whole  squares  originally,  only  the  cat  had  passed  out 
that  way  lately.  There  was  a  stove,  a  bed,  and  a  place 
to  sit,  an  infant  in  the  house  where  it  was  born,  a  silk 
parasol,  gilt-framed  looking-glass,  and  a  patent  new 
coffee-mill  nailed  to  an  oak  sapling.  The  bargain  was 
soon  concluded,  for  James  had  in  the  mean  while 
returned.  I  to  pay  four  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents 
to-night,  he  to  vacate  at  five  to-morrow  morning,  selling 
to  nobody  else  meanwhile :  I  to  take  possession  at  six. 
It  were  well,  he  said,  to  be  there  early,  and  anticipate 
certain  indistinct  but  wholly  unjust  claims  on  the  score 
of  ground  rent  and  fuel.  This  he  assured  me  was  the 
only  encumbrance.  At  six  I  passed  him  and  his  family 
on  the  road.  One  large  bundle  held  their  all,  —  bed, 
coffee-mill,  looking-glass,  hens,  —  all  but  the  cat ;  she  took 
to  the  woods  and  became  a  wild  cat,  and,  as  I  learned 
afterward,  trod  in  a  trap  set  for  woodchucks,  and  so  be- 
came a  dead  cat  at  last. 

I  took  down  this  dwelling  the  same  morning,  drawing 
the  nails,  and  removed  it  to  the  pond  side  by  small  cart- 
loads, spreading  the  boards  on  the  grass  there  to  bleach 
and  warp  back  again  in  the  sun.  One  early  thrush  gave 
me  a  note  or  two  as  I  drove  along  the  woodland  path.  I 
was  informed  treacherously  by  a  young  Patrick  that 
neighbor  Seeley,  an  Irishman,  in  the  intervals  of  the 
carting,  transferred  the  still  tolerable,  straight,  and  driva- 
ble  nails,  staples,  and  spikes  to  his  pocket,  and  then  stood 
when  I  came  back  to  pass  the  time  of  day,  and  looked 
freshly  up,  unconcerned,  with  spring  thoughts,  at  the 
devastation;  there  being  a  dearth  of  work,  as  he  said. 
He  was  there  to  represent  spectatordom,  and  help  make 
this  seemingly  insignificant  event  one  with  the  removal 
of  the  gods  of  Troy. 

I  dug  my  cellar  in  the  side  of  a  hill  sloping  to  the 


TUE  LONG   TUEME  205 

south,  where  a  woodchuck  had  formerly  dug  his  burrow, 
down  through  sumach  aud  blackberry  roots,  and  the 
lowest  stain  of  vegetation,  six  feet  square  by  seven  deep, 
to  a  fine  sand  where  potatoes  would  not  freeze  in  any 
winter.  The  sides  were  left  shelving,  and  not  stoned ; 
but  tlie  sun  having  never  shone  on  them,  the  sand  still 
keeps  its  place.  It  was  but  two  hours'  work.  I  took 
particular  pleasure  in  this  breaking  of  ground,  for  in 
almost  all  latitudes  men  dig  into  the  earth  for  an  equable 
temperature.  Under  the  most  splendid  house  in  the 
city  is  still  to  be  found  the  cellar  where  they  store  their 
roots  as  of  old,  and  long  after  the  superstructure  has  dis- 
appeared posterity  remark  its  dent  in  the  earth.  Tlie 
house  is  still  but  a  sort  of  porch  at  the  entrance  of  a 
burrow. 

At  length,  in  the  beginning  of  INIay,  with  the  help  of 
some  of  my  acquaintances,  rather  to  improve  so  good  an 
occasion  for  neighborliness  than  from  any  necessity,  I 
set  up  the  frame  of  my  house.  Xo  man  was  ever  more 
lionored  in  the  character  of  his  raisers  than  I.  They  are 
destined,  I  trust,  to  assist  at  the  raising  of  loftier  struc- 
tures one  day.  I  began  to  occupy  my  house  on  the  -1th  of 
July,  as  soon  as  it  was  boarded  and  roofed,  for  the  boards 
were  carefully  feather-edged  and  lapped,  so  that  it  was 
perfectly  impervious  to  rain,  but  before  boarding  I  laid 
the  foundation  of  a  chimney  at  one  end,  bringing  two 
cartloads  of  stones  up  the  hill  from  the  pond  in  my  arms. 
I  built  the  chimney  after  my  hoeing  in  the  fall,  before  a 
fire  became  necessary  for  warmth,  doing  my  cooking  in 
the  mean  while  out  of  doors  on  the  ground,  early  in  the 
morning,  which  mode  I  still  think  is  in  some  respects 
more  convenient  and  agreeable  than  the  usual  one. 
When  it  stormed  before  my  bread  was  baked,  I  fixed  a 
few  boards  over  the  fire,  and  sat  under  them  to  watch 
my  loaf,  and  passed  some  pleasant  hours  in  that  way. 


206      A    FIRST  MANUAL    OF  COMPOSITION 

In  those  days,  when  my  hands  were  much  employed,  I 
read  but  little,  but  the  least  scraps  of  paper  which  lay 
on  the  ground,  my  holdei',  or  tableclotli,  afforded  me  as 
much  entertainment,  in  fact  answered  the  same  purpose 
as  the  Iliad.  —  Henry  D.  Thoreau  :   Walden. 

ExEFvCTSE  159.  (Oral.')  To  divide  a  narra- 
tive subject  into  paragraphs.  —  It  is  important 
to  think  aliead  about  our  subject  when  pre- 
paring to  write  a  theme  of  several  paragraphs, 
—  quite  as  important  here  as  in  the  single 
paragraph.  On  proposing  to  himself  a  sub- 
ject, a  good  writer  at  once  asks,  What  are 
its  divisions?  what  different  phases  of  it  shall 
I  treat?  If  the  subject  be  that  of  a  short 
narrative,  the  question  is.  How  much  of  the 
story  sliould  come  in  the  first  paragraph? 
how  much  in  the  second  ?  how  much  in  the 
third  ?  Thus  the  subject  "•  What  I  do  in  a 
day  "  might  be  divided  into  three  paragraphs, 
treating  the  events  (a)  of  the  morning,  (5)  of 
the  afternoon,  and  (f)  of  the  evening.  For 
a  tlieme  of  say  five  hundred  words,  three 
indentions  are  usually  enough.  Yet  untrained 
writers  are  likely  to  indent  every  sentence.  They 
do  not  seem  able  to  see  the  main  divisions  of 
their  thought,  nor  to  appreciate  that,  in  a 
short  theme,  the  indentions  indicate  only  main 


THE  LONG    THEME  207 

divisions.  A  reader  must  have  thoughts  chas- 
sified  in  groups  for  him  if  he  is  to  understand 
them  without  labor.  Why  is  it  that  we  re- 
member so  few  sermons?  Natural  depravity 
in  part,  no  doubt,  but  in  part  the  weak  struc- 
ture of  the  sermons.  A  good  short  outline 
of  two  or  three  heads  can  be  remembered, 
but  who  can  remember  fifthlies  and  sixthlies  ? 
All  readers  and  hearers  are  in  one  respect  like 
the  girl  in  the  following  anecdote :  — 

In  a  private  party  one  evening,  at  which  the  late 
Andrew  Fuller  was  present,  the  conversation  turned  on 
the  subject  of  preaching.  One  of  the  party  said  that 
preaching  without  notes  is  the  hardest  work  in  tlie 
world.  Mr.  Fuller  said  that  it  is  easy  enough  if  one 
goes  to  work  in  the  right  way.  "  Now,"  he  said,  "  if  I 
were  to  tell  my  servant  girl  to  go  to  the  shop  and  get 
some  sugar  and  blue,  some  coffee  and  starch,  some  cakes, 
some  soap  and  some  almonds,  some  caudles  and  spice, 
some  nuts  and  some  tea,  some  potash  and  butter,  she 
would  say,  'O  dear,  sir,  I  can  never  think  of  all  that.' 
Well,  look  here,  Betty,  you  know  to-morrow  your  mistress 
is  going  to  have  a  large  wash,  and  she  will  want  some 
blue  and  soap,  candles  and  potash ;  the  next  day  she  will 
have  company,  and  will  want  some  tea  and  coffee,  sugar, 
spice,  nuts,  cakes,  butter,  and  almonds.  'Thank  you, 
sir ;  now  I  can  think  of  them  all.' "  So  it  is  in  preaching 
with  good  arrangement. 

Discuss  with  the  instructor  and  the  class 
the  merits  of   different  ways  for  dividing  the 


208      A   FIUST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

following  subjects  :  (1)  A  camping  trip ;  (2) 
Our  picnic ;  (3)  The  chief  events  of  the 
school  year  ;  (4)  Our  ocean  voyage  ;  (5)  My 
experiments  in  gardening ;  (6)  How  I  learned 
to  svv^im  ;  (7)  A  practical  joke  ;  (8)  The  fall 
I  had  ;  (9)  One  day  in  business ;  (10)  A  few 
days  in  the  city ;  (11)  A  few  days  in  the 
country. 

Exercise  160.  {Written.}  Choose  one  of 
tlie  subjects  in  Exercise  159,  or  some  similar 
subject,  and  think  out  the  substance  of  each 
paragraph  before  3'OU  write  a  word.  Then  jot 
down  at  the  head  of  your  paper  a  paragraph 
outline,  after  this  fashion  :  — 

MY   FALL    IX   THE    "  BRICK  " 

(^OnfHne} 

^  1.    Explain  "Brick"  as  a  brick  dormitory.     Describe 

the  stairs  and  "  stair-well." 
^  2.    Explain    how    the   fall   happened.      I   was   sliding 

round  sharp  curve  in  hand-rail  of  balustrade,  lost 

my  balance,  and  went  over  into  the  stair-well. 
^  3.    Describe  sensations  felt  on  the  way  down,  and  on 

alighting  thirty  feet  below. 

Having  made  your  outline,  write  a  theme  of 
not  more  than  four  paragraphs,  giving  a  page, 
more  or  less,  to  each. 


THE  LONG    THEME  209 

Exercise  101.  To  divide  a  descriptive  sub- 
ject into  paragraphs. — It  is  less  easy  to  make 
satisfactory  divisions  of  a  descriptive  than 
of  a  narrative  subject.  The  reason  is  clear. 
Events  follow  each  other  in  time,  and  so  do 
thouglits  and  words.  It  is  comparatively  easy, 
therefore,  to  hit  upon  convenient  divisions 
of  time  and  make  the  paragraphs  correspond. 
But  all  parts  of  an  object  exist  at  one  and  the 
same  time,  whereas  the  words  that  describe  it 
must  call  the  reader's  attention  to  first  one 
part,  then  another.  If  the  object  has  physical 
main  divisions,  we  are  helped  somewhat.  A 
wasp  consists  of  three  almost  separate  parts, 
—  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen ;  consequently 
he  may  be  described  in  three  paragraphs.  The 
city  of  Chicago  and  the  city  of  London  have 
each  a  North  Side,  a  South  Side,  and  a  West 
Side.  Accordingly  the  })aragraph  divisions 
are  clear  for  a  short  theme  on  either  city. 
Perhaps  the  best  plan  for  a  description,  how- 
ever, is  to  look  at  the  object  from  a  fixed 
point  of  view,  and  not  to  change  from  this. 
This  method  will  yield  first  a  paragraph  on  the 
object  according  to  its  general  appearance,  then 
other  paragraphs  on  particular  details.  Ordi- 
narily a  description  should  state  a  general  im- 


210      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

pressioii,  whether  it  afterward  gives  details  or 
not.  The  most  common  way  of  doing  this  is 
to  tell  what  in  general  the  object  to  be  de- 
scribed makes  yon  think  of.  If  a  river,  it  may 
remind  you  of  a  snake  or  a  letter  S  ;  if  a 
village,  it  may  recall  to  your  mind  a  flat-iron  ; 
if  a  little  old  lady,  it  may  appear  to  you,  as  to 
Dickens,  in  Hard  Times,  '■'•  a  bundle  of  shawls." 
The  main  impression  thus  received  is  called 
the  fundaynental  image. 

Discuss  various  ways  of  paragraphing  the 
following  subjects  :  — 

1.  Kinds  of  noses.  2.  A  bit  of  old  architecture.  3.  A 
church  altar.  4.  Famous  deltas.  5.  The  shop.  6.  The 
hinch-rooni.  7.  A  little  old  man.  8.  This  town  in  a.d. 
2000.  9.  An  old  fireplace.  10.  A  wreck.  11.  Profile 
iAIountain.  12.  The  football  field.  V.\.  The  baseball 
ground.  14.  The  capitol.  1.").  An  old  horse.  1(J.  A 
thin  man.  17.  A  fat  man.  18.  A  river,  seen  from  far 
and  near.     19.    A  view  from  a  high  building. 

Exp:rcise  162.  (Written.)  Choose  one  of  the 
subjects  in  the  preceding  exercise,  or  a  similar 
subject,  and  write  an  outline.  Then  compose 
a  theme  of  three  or  four  paragraphs.  Let 
your  first  paragraph  deal  with  the  general 
appearance  of  the  object.  Let  each  of  the 
other  paragraphs  group  together  certain  details 


THE  LONG    THEME  211 

that  seem  to  go  together,  e.g.^  details  of  dress 
or  details  of  the  face.  Observe  a  warning  :  If 
you  would  keep  one  point  of  view  throughout 
the  description,  do  not  describe  details  which 
cannot  be  seen  from  tliat  point. 

Exercise  16-3.  (Oral.^  To  criticise  the  para- 
graphing of  two  versions  of  Lincoln's  Gettysburg 
speech,  and  to  learn  the  speech  by  heart.  —  Read 
carefully  the  following  address  ;  it  will  be 
recognized  as  that  delivered  by  Lincoln  at  the 
dedication  of  the  Gettysburg  National  Ceme- 
tery, in  1863.  It  was  written  first  as  one 
paragraph  ;  but  a  year  later,  in  making  a  copy, 
the  President  divided  it  as  you  see. 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago,  our  fathers  brought 
forth  on  this  coutinent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty, 
and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created 
equal. 

Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing 
whether  that  nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so 
dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We  are  met  on  a  great 
battlefield  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  por- 
tion of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for  those  who 
here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is 
altogether  fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this. 

But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedicate  —  we  cannot 

1  The  abbreviation  e.g.  is  read  "  for  example."  It  stands 
for  the  Latin  exempli  gratia. 


212      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

consecrate  —  we  cannot  hallow  this  ground.  The  brave 
men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated 
it  far  above  our  poor  power  to  add  or  detract.  The 
world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we 
say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It 
is  for  us,  the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the 
unfinished  work  w^hich  they  who  fought  here  have  thus 
far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here 
dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us  —  that 
from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to 
that  cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of 
devotion,  —  that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead 
shall  not  have  died  in  vain,  —  that  this  nation,  under 
God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  —  and  that  gov- 
ernment of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people, 
shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 

State  the  subject  of  each  paragraph  in  the 
version  given  above.  Then  read  the  follow- 
ing version,  taken  from  a  school-book,  and 
state  the  subject  of  each  paragraph:  — 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought 
forth  on  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in 
Liljerty,  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all  men 
are  created  equal.  Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil 
war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any  nation  so  con- 
ceived and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure. 

We  are  met  on  a  great  battlefield  of  that  war.  ^ye 
have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  fiiaal 
resting-place  for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  tliat 
nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that 
we  should  do  this.  Rut  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  ded- 
icate—  we  cannot  consecrate  —  we  cannot  hallow  —  this 
ground. 


THE  LONG   TUEME  213 

The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here, 
have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  poor  power  to  add  or 
detract.  The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember, 
what  we  say  here  ;  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did 
here.  It  is  for  us  the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated  here 
to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here  have 
thus  far  so  nobly  advanced. 

It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great 
task  remaining  before  us  —  that  from  these  honored 
dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which 
they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion  —  that  we 
here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died 
in  vain  —  that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new 
birth  of  freedom  —  and  that  government  of  the  people,  by 
the  people,  for  the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 

Having  read  both  versions,  which  do  you 
consider  the  better  in  respect  to  paragraph- 
ing? By  all  means  commit  the  entire  address 
to  memory.  Only  after  years  of  study,  both 
of  men  and  of  literature,  is  one  likely  to 
appreciate  how  good  this  speech  is.  The  late 
Charles  A.  Dana,  a  brilliant  journalist,  wrote 
as  follows,  quoting  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Lin- 
coln's Secretar}^  of  War  :  — 

I  remember  very  well  I\Ir.  Stanton's  comment  on  the 
Gettysburg  speeches  of  Edward  Everett  and  Mr.  Lincoln. 
"  Edward  Everett  has  made  a  speech,"  he  said,  "  that  will 
make  three  columns  in  the  newspapers,  and  Mr.  Lincoln 
has  made  a  speech  of  perhaps  forty  or  fifty  lines.  Ever- 
ett's is  the  speech  of  a  scholar,  polished  to  the  last  possi- 
bility.    It   is   elegant  and   it   is   learned;  but  Lincoln's 


214      A  FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

speech  will  be  read  by  a  thousand  men  where  one  reads 
Everett's,  and  will  be  remembered  as  long  as  anybody's 
speeches  are  remembered  who  speaks  in  the  English 
language." 

ExEECiSE  164.  {Written.}  After  hearing 
the  following  logical  composition  of  several 
paragraphs,  reproduce  it,  giving  the  para- 
graphs as  in  the  original :  — 

THE   DEFINITION    OF    A   PATRIOT 

A  patriot  is  one  who  loves  his  fathei'land  —  his  coun- 
try. People  show  patriotism  in  various  ways.  In  time 
of  war,  when  the  national  safety  is  menaced  by  a  public 
enemy,  men  are  ready  to  enter  the  army  and  to  give 
their  lives,  if  need  be,  in  defence  of  tlieir  country.  A 
true  patriot,  too,  is  pleased  by  everything  which  reflects 
credit  on  his  homeland.  He  is  anxious  that  its  public 
affairs  shall  be  stained  with  no  meanness  or  dishonor. 
He  is  anxious  that  its  government  shall  always  be  just 
and  generous  in  dealing  with  the  governments  of  other 
nations.  He  does  not  wish  an  advantage  secured  from 
any  other  nation,  especially  from  a  weaker  one,  by  wan- 
ton violence  or  by  fraud.  He  is  delighted  with  every 
advance  of  his  country  in  the  arts  of  civilization,  and 
pained  at  the  triumph  of  evil  men  or  of  vicious  measures. 
And  he  is  always  ready  to  do  what  he  can  to  make  his 
country  better  or  stronger  or  safer. 

We  have  seen  sonre  of  the  reasons  which  an  American 
has  for  being  proud  of  his  country.  But  in  order  to  be 
a  patriot  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  be  a  boaster.  In- 
deed, a  true  patriot  is  so  sure  of  the  solid  merit  of  his 
country  that  he  does  not  need  to  say  much  about  it.  If 
a  man  is  in  the  habit  of  talking  about  his  own  honesty, 


THE  LONG    THEME  215 

it  leads  others  to  suspect  that  perhaps  after  all  he  is 
trying  to  cover  up  a  streak  of  dishonesty.  At  any  rate^ 
bragging  is  a  weak  and  foolish  habit.  And  bragging  of 
one's  country  is  quite  as  foolish  as  it  is  for  a  boy  to  boast 
of  his  father's  wealth  or  of  his  sister's  beauty. 

Neither  is  it  a  sign  of  patriotism  to  despise  other 
countries.  We  may  love  our  own  the  best,  but  one  who 
does  not  know  that  other  countries  are  also  great  and 
pov^ferf ul  and  famous,  is  merely  very  ignorant.  If  we  re- 
spect other  nations  for  their  good  qualities,  we  are  all  the 
better  fitted  to  understand  and  admire  the  like  qualities 
in  our  own. 

Sneering  at  other  races  is  no  sign  of  patriotism.  Boys 
and  girls  sometimes  are  apt  to  think  themselves  better 
than  one  of  their  mates  who  was  born  in  a  foreign  land, 
and  to  show  their  superiority  by  using  for  him  some  sort 
of  foolish  nickname.  But  this  is  very  silly.  Is  he  a 
German?  The  Germans  have  some  of  the  greatest 
names  and  have  done  some  of  the  greatest  deeds  in  all 
history.  Is  he  an  Italian?  Italy  is  a  beautiful  land, 
famous  for  some  of  the  finest  painters  and  musicians, 
and  for  some  of  the  wisest  statesmen  and  bravest  soldiers 
of  any  land.  Is  he  a  Jew?  The  Jews  are  a  wonderful 
people,  and  a  list  of  the  great  men  who  are  Jews  would 
be  a  very  long  one.  Indeed,  one  may  well  be  glad  and 
proud  to  belong  to  any  of  these  races,  or  of  many  others 
which  might  be  mentioned.  —  Professor  Harry  Pratt 
Judson:   The  Young  American. 

Exercise  105.  (^Oral.)  To  divide  an  exposi- 
tory subject  into  paragraphs.  —  The  word  exjJOSt- 
torij  sounds  large,  but  it  is  no  more  difficult  to 
understand  than  logical.  Exposition  is  simply 
explanation.     Every  time  you  have  explained 


21G      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION" 

"  why "  or  "  how,"  you  have  been  talking  or 
writing  exposition.  Expository  writing  leads 
to  reasons  and  principles;  it  is  a  form  of 
logical  composition.  Nearly  all  the  logical 
paragraphs  that  you  have  reproduced  are  ex- 
amples of  exposition. 

Discuss  some  of  the  following  subjects,  ex- 
pounding the  underlying  principles  and  so 
coming  to  a  conclusion  about  each.  Give  all 
the  particular  instances  that  are  needed  to 
make  your  thoughts  clear. 

1.  The  chief  principle  in  golf.  2.  What  is  cannibalism  ? 
3.  The  bear  family.  4.  Principles  of  diet.  5.  What  is 
credulity?  6.  AVhat  is  home-sickness?  7.  How  to  sail 
a  boat.  8.  What  are  drowned  rivers?  9.  Dangers  of 
eating  candy.  10.  How  ravines  ai-e  formed.  11.  Dangers 
of  over-exercise.  12.  Dangers  of  too  little  exercise. 
13.  Why  the  earth  quakes.  14.  Wliat  is  meant  by  "  A 
great  city,  a  great  solitude." 

Exercise  166.  (OraZ.)  In  the  same  way 
discuss  the  following  :  — • 

1.  How  the  will  may  be  trained.  2,  An  ideal  class- 
room. 3.  What  is  an  ideal  camping  ground?  4.  Advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  classroom  study.  5.  Effects 
of  climate  on  man.  6.  Practical  values  of  good  manners. 
7.  How  to  plan  a  dinner.  8.  How  to  furnish  a  sitting- 
room.  9.  Advantages  of  small  classes.  10.  Possibilities 
of  electricity.     11.    The  art  of  bass-fishing. 


THE  LONG   THEME  217 

Exercise  107.  (^Written.')  Choose  a  subject 
for  ex^^osition,  write  a  paragraph  outline,  and 
compose  an  exposition. 

Exercise  168.  {Written.')  After  hearing  the 
following  brief  read  ;  reproduce  it :  — 

Question  :  Resolved,  That  it  would  be  better  for  us  to 
study  all  lessons  at  school. 

BRIEF   FOR   THE   AFFIRMATIVE 

I.  We  should  study  more  effectively.  For :  (a)  We 
should  have  fixed  hours  and  be  free  froin  interrup- 
tions, (b)  We  should  study  during  the  day,  while 
our  minds  are  freshest,  (r)  We  should  study  more 
earnestly  when  everybody  is  studying.  (*/)  We 
should  receive  all  proper  help  from  reference  books, 
(e)  The  teacher  would  show  us  how  to  study. 
II.  Our  health  would  be  better.  For :  («)  We  should 
not  overwork  by  trying  to  spend  nwre  time  on  les- 
sons than  we  could  afford.  {Ii)  We  should  have  our 
evenings  for  recreation  and  sleep,  (c)  We  should 
be  free  from  worry. 

Exercise  1(39.  (  Written.')  Write  a  brief  for 
an  argument,  following  in  general  the  model 
given  above.  Choose  eitlier  the  affirmative 
side  or  the  negative.  The  following  list  may 
suggest  a  subject :  ^  — 

1.  Examinations  should  be  abolished.  2.  A  high  school 
is  guilty  of  injustice  to  its  students  if  it  does  not  train 

1  Do  not  select  a  subject  too  large  for  your  knowledge. 
See  Exercise  97. 


218      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 

them  in  public  speaking.  3.  People  possessing  no  proi> 
erty  should  not  be  allowed  to  vote.  4.  Is  it  right  to 
break  a  friendship?  5.  Ought  department  stores  to  be 
permitted  ?  6.  Are  there  good  excuses  for  being  a  tramp? 
7.  Is  it  wrong  to  bet?  8.  Should  a  man  ever  shoot  a 
robber?  9.  Is  it  wrong  to  go  to  the  theatre  often? 
10.  Is  it  ever  best  to  give  money  on  the  street?  11.  Is  it 
right  for  women  to  wear  birds  on  their  hats?  12.  How 
far  is  it  right  for  students  to  study  together?  13.  Is  a 
curfew  law  desirable.  14.  Is  it  right  to  discard  old 
friends  for  new?  1.5.  Should  one  bear  witness  against  a 
friend?  16.  Does  paying  a  fare  entitle  one  to  a  seat? 
17.  Is  it  right  to  let  people  deceive  themselves?  18.  Are 
there  any  customaiy  lies  which  are  right  ?  19  Which  is 
rougher,  football  or  pugilism  ? 

ExEECLSE  170.  (Wrifteii.')  Expand  your 
brief  into  a  logical  argument.  Develop  each 
sub-heading  into  a  paragraph,  thus  making  per- 
haps half  a  dozen  paragraplis. 


A   LIST   OF   CONCLUSIONS   UNDER  VARIOUS   EX- 
ERCISES,  FOR  USE  IN  CORRECTING   THEMES 

EXERCISE 

2.    Tell  the   exact   truth   concerning   events   as  they 

seemed  to  you. 
6.    Follow  the  exact  time-order  iii  so  far  as  possible. 

IL    Seldom  place  periods  thirty  words  apart. 

12.    Rarely  compound  more  than  two  sentences  in  one. 

16.  Never  try  to  make  the  comma  do  the  work  of  the 
period. 

19.  Place  a  semicolon  or  a  period  before  the  conjunc- 
tion so  when  aiid  does  not  precede  it. 

21.  Often  place  a  period  or  a  semicolon,  and  begin  a 
new  statement  with  a  synonym  for  and  or  and  so. 

26.  Instead  of  the  comma  before  hut,  sometimes  place  a 
period  or  a  semicolon,  and  begin  a  new  statement 
with  a  synonym  for  but. 

34.  Place  a  comma  between  compounding  sentences 
joined  by  atid,  and  sometimes  between  predicates 
so  joined. 

39.  Place  a  comma  or  a  semicolon  between  compound- 
ing sentences  joined  by  but,  and  often  a  comma 
between  predicates  so  joined. 

44.  Let  and  introduce  only  that  which  should  be  added 
closely. 

49.    Let  but  introduce  a  real  and  immediate  contrast. 

54.    Instead  of  as  sometimes  use  for,  because,  since,  in 
view  of  the  fact  that,  for  the  reason  that;  and  when 
219 


220      A   FIRST  MANUAL   OF  COMPOSITION 


the  causal  relation  is  obvious,  omit  the  conjunc- 
tion. 

59.  A  complex  sentence  is  one  in  which  statements  are 
used  to  modify  the  subject  or  the  predicate,  and 
so  become  dependent  statements. 

64.  Beware  of  punctuating  a  modifying  clause  as  a  sen- 
tence. 

69.  Rarely  insert  a  comma  save  as  a  warning  to  pre- 
vent confusion  or  misunderstanding. 

74.  Set  off  appositive  and  slightly  parenthetical  expres- 
sions by  the  comma  before  and  after. 

79.  Separate  words  in  a  series  by  the  comma,  even  when 
and  connects  the  last  two. 

84.  Place  a  comma  before  a  relative  clause  if  the  clause 
is  not  needed  to  identify  the  person  or  thing  to 
which  it  relates. 

89.  Before  an  informal  quotation  place  a  comma;  be- 

fore a  formal  quotation  a  colon. 

90.  Before  an  informal  enumeration   that  explains   a 

preceding  summary,  place  a  comma  and  a  dash ; 
before  a  formal  enumeration  a  colon. 
96.    Make  your  observations  as  many  as  possible  before 
drawing  a  conclusion. 

98.  Make  guesses  freely  from  resemblances  and  differ- 

ences, but  come  to  no  conclusion  before  testing 
them  by  experiment. 

99.  Do  not  mistake  what  happens  to  folloio  for  lohat  results. 

100.  Do  not  use  words  without  a  clear  sense  of  their 

meaning. 

101.  Let  the  title  give  some  hint  of  the  conclusion. 

109.    Place  every  modifier  close  to  the  word  to  which  it 

belongs. 
112,    Place  every  pronoun  near  its  noun,  or  if  necessary 

repeat  the  noun. 


CONCLUSIONS    UNDER   EXERCISES      221 

EXERCISE 

115.  Give  every  participle  a  neighboring  noun  or  pro- 
noun witli  wliicli  to  agree. 

118.  When  using  a  word  in  ing,  precede  it  by  the  posses- 
sive if  you  mean  the  action  itself. 

121.  Instead  of  wJnch  referring  to  a  clause,  use  tnJiich 
preceded  by  an  appositive  for  the  clause. 

123.  Do  not  say  and  which  unless  you  have  begun  the 
preceding  clause  with  tohich. 

129.  Often  compel  a  simple  sentence  to  do  the  work  of 
a  compound. 

131.  Reduce  to  clauses  or  phrases  any  sentences  which 
can  easily  be  reduced. 

149,  Use  the  dash  to  indicate  either  suspense  or  a  sudden 

break  in  the  thought,  but  never  use  it  as  a  period. 

150.  Use  the   interrogation  point  at  tlie   end  of  every 

question,  even  if  this  be  but  a  part  of  a  sentence. 
155.    Use  the  exclamation  point  after  a  word,  clause,  or 
sentence  that  is  truly  exclaniatoiy  in  thought. 


INDEX   OF   RHETORICAL   SUBJECTS 


Abbreviation,  curt,  to  be 
avoided   in   letters,    ISlj. 

Abbreviations,  permissible, 
188. 

Ability,  158. 

Accept,  11)4. 

Acceptance,  1.59. 

Acceptation,  15'J. 

Access,  1.59. 

Accession,  159. 

Accident,  an,  and  a  Hero, 
theme-subject,  14-15. 

Accident,  Imaginary,  theme- 
snbjecit,  49. 

Act,  1.59. 

Action,  1.59. 

Adjective  or  adverb,  17(j-177. 

Advance,  159-1(50. 

Advancement,  159-1()(). 

Adventure,  Imaginary,  theme- 
subject,  37. 

Adverb  or  adjective,  17(3-177. 

Adverb,  relative,  Ul. 

Affect,  164. 

Aggravate,  1G5. 

Allright,  174. 

Allude,  1()5. 

Almost,  179. 

Alternative,  KiO. 

Ambiguity,  danger  from,  125- 
lli(). 

Analogy,  reasoning  from,  119- 
122. 


And,  synonyms  for,  27;  pre- 
ceded by  comma,  38;  reason- 
able use  of,  49-50. 

And  so,  synonyms  for,  27. 

And  which,  how  to  avoid  the 
illogical  use  of,  144-145. 

Angry,  179. 

Any,  177. 

Anybody  else's,  174. 

Anybody's  else,  174. 

Apostrophe,  in  plural  of  single 
letters  and  words,  19(i,  foot- 
note. 

Apposition,  how  to  punctuate 
words  in,  79-82. 

Approve,  1(37. 

Apt,  175. 

Argument,  217-218;  see  also 
Logical  Paragraph. 

As  vs.  like.  178. 

As,  synonyms  for,  54-.58. 

Assert,  KiG. 

Asterisks,  10.">,  footnote. 

Avocation,  IGO. 

Awkward  change  of  structure, 
151-153. 

B. 

Bad,  175-177. 
Badly,  175-177. 
Balance,  KiO. 

Bear,  The  Death  of  the,  theme- 
subject,  25. 
Begin,  1(55. 
Brackets,  52. 


228 


224     INDEX  OF  RHETORICAL   SUBJECTS 


Brief,  a  sample,  217. 

Briiit!;,  1G5-1(J6. 

Bryant's  mode  of  life,  108-109. 

Building,  description  of,  89-i)0, 
91. 

Business,  value  of  composition 
in,  3. 

But,  synonyms  for,  31 ;  pre- 
ceded by  comma,  45-48 ;  rea- 
sonable use  of,  52-53. 

But  that,  181. 

But  what,  181. 

C. 

Calculate,  167. 

Camp  Life,  The,  theme-subject, 
50-51. 

Can,  1(38-169. 

Capacity,  158. 

Capital,  does  not  always  begin 
a  sentence,  19;  in  proper 
names,  57,  footnote;  87,  foot- 
note ;  88,  footnote ;  190,  foot- 
note. 

Caret,  92-93. 

Castle,  A  Medineval,  theme- 
subject,  89. 

Cause  and  result,  123-125. 

Cautions  to  ol)serve  in  reason- 
ing, 11.5-12(5. 

Chain  of  paragraphs,  200-218. 

Chain  of  thought,  viii,  7,  37, 
9(;-157. 

Character,  inferred  from  ap- 
pearance, 68. 

Character,  160-161. 

Characteristic  gifts  revealed  in 
writing,  6. 

Character  sketch,  71,  72-73,  7C>- 
77,  78. 

Child,  the,  omits  links  of 
thought  in  expression,  101 ; 
uses  and  to  excess,  1(>;  con- 
fuses comma  and  period,  23. 


Choice,  160. 

Chronological  order,  12-14. 

Claim,  161). 

Clause,  modifying,  how  not  to 
punctuate,  (i8-71 ;  object,  62 ; 
principal,  19;  relative  de- 
fined, (51;  dependent,  61,62- 
6(5 ;  elliptical,  64,  (55 ;  relative, 
how  punctuated,  87-89. 

Clearness,  in  letters,  185-190; 
see  also  Misunderstanding. 

Coherence  (i.e.  logic)  in  the 
whole  composition,  see  Exer- 
cises 6,  8,  10,  15,  25,  30,  91, 
92,  93,  94,  95,  96,  97,  98,  99, 
100,  103,  105,  107,  159,  1(50, 
161,  1(52,  163.  164,  165,  166, 
1(57,  KSS,  169,  170. 

Coherence  in  the  sentence,  see 
Exercises  43,  48,  109, 112, 115, 
117,  121,  123,  129,  131. 

Cold,  A,  Described  and  De- 
fined, theme-subject,  1.'50. 

Cold.  Why  do  Objects  Equally 
Cold  feel  Unequally  Cold? 
theme-subject,  147. 

Collective  noun,  how  it  governs 
verb,  148. 

Colon,  before  quotation,  91-93 ; 
before  enumeration,  94-95. 

Comma,  expensive  misplacing 
of,  3,  75 ;  cannot  do  work  of 
period,  25;  before  and,  38- 
44;  before  bnt,  4.5-48;  inter- 
rupting, 73,  76,  91;  before 
quotation,  91-93;  before  enu- 
meration, 94-95. 

Commands,  punctuation  of, 
199. 

Commence,  165 

Complement,  161. 

Complete  statement,  beginning 
with  so,  26;  see  also  under 
Sentence. 


INDEX   OF  BHETORICAL    SUBJECTS     225 


Complex  sentence  defined,  59- 
66. 

Compliment,  161. 

Composition,  value  of,  l-li. 

Compound  sentence,  proper 
length  of,  18;  simple  sen- 
tence may  be  compelled  to 
do  the  work  of,  151-1.53. 

Compounding  sentences,  how- 
many  may  be  joined,  18. 

Compound  words,  78. 

Conclusion,  logical,  how 
reached,  96-157. 

Conclusions,  a  list  of,  for  use 
in  correcting  themes,  219-221. 

Concord,  of  pronoun  and  ante- 
cedent, 115-146;  of  subject 
and  predicate,  148-119. 

Conjunctions,  adverbial,  61 ; 
dependent,  66,  155-157. 

Considering,  139,  footnote. 

Continual,  177. 

Continuous,  177. 

Contrast  introduced  by  but, 
52-53. 

Cook,  a  Good,  The  Character- 
istics of,  theme-subject,  131. 

Co(')rdinate,  clauses,  19;  con- 
junctions, see  And  and  Bat. 

Correctness  in  the  use  of 
words,  158-184. 

Correspondence,  1-4 ;  see  also 
Letter-writing. 

Cotton-wool,  An  Inference 
about,  theme-subject,  140. 

Council,  161. 

Counsel,  161. 

Courtesy  in  letters,  185-190. 

Criticism  of  self,  5. 

D. 

Danger  signal, comma  as,  74-76. 
Dash,  with  comma  before  enu- 


meration, 94,  95;  how  to  use 
properly,  UK)-192 ;  cannot  do 
work  of  period,  192. 

Data,  reasoning  from,  115-126. 

Dawn,  We  Know  Not  What 
the.  May  Bring  Forth,  theme- 
subject,  38. 

Debase,  166. 

Debate,  217-218. 

Deduction,  109-110. 

Degrade,  166. 

Demean,  166. 

Description,  67-95,  209-211. 

Descriptive  paragraj^h,  67-95. 

Desire,  170. 

Dictionary,  The  Standard,  18- 
19. 

Differences,  reasoning  from, 
119-122. 

Different  from,  182. 

Digression,  105-109. 

Drank,  W>. 

Dreams,  34. 

Drive,  166-167. 

Drunk,  im. 

During,  182. 

Duty,  Our,  to  the  Next  Genera- 
tion, theme-subject,  132. 

E. 

Earth,  How  to  Imagine  the,  in 
Space,  theme-subject,  144. 

Effect,  164. 

E.g..  211,  footnote. 

Either  takes  singular  verb,  149. 

Either  vs.  any,  177. 

Ellipsis,  (i4-65. 

Eminent,  178. 

Endorse,  167. 

Enumeration,  punctuation  of, 
94-95. 

Envelope,  the,  in  letter-writing, 
188. 


226     INDEX  OF  RHETORICAL   SUBJECTS 


Everybody,  145. 

Except,  1(54. 

Exclamation  point,  198-199. 

Experiment,  122. 

Experiment,  an  interesting,  22. 

Exposition,  see  nnder  Logical 

Paragraph,  9(3-1.57,  passim. 
Exposition,  215-216. 
Extremely,  181. 

F. 

Fetch,  165-16(). 

Fictitions  paragraph,  37-66. 

First,  177. 

Follow,  what  happens  to,  not 
to  be  mistaken  for  what  re- 
sults, 123-125. 

Freedom  in  writing,  1. 

Fundamental  image,  210. 

Funny,  177. 

G. 

General,  reasoning  from,  to 
particular,   109-110. 

German  Duel,  A,  theme-sub- 
ject, 88-89. 

Gesture,  2,  101. 

Giotto's  Circle,  theme-subject, 
135-136. 

Glaciers,  the  Forming  of  a 
Right  Conclusion  about, 
theme-subject,   150-151. 

Good  deal,  180. 

Got,  167. 

Government,  principles  of,  147- 
148. 

Graceful  landscape,  85-87. 

Grass  upon  the  mountains,  86. 

Great  deal,  180. 

Guess,  167. 

Guesses,  reasoning  from,  119- 
122. 


H. 

Happen,  170. 

Hasty  mind,  117. 

Have,  167. 

Headings,  in  business  letters, 

186-187 ;    in  informal  notes, 

194-195. 
Healthful,  178. 
Healthy,  178. 
Hero,  a  Belgian,  14. 
His  or  her  not  desirable  for  his, 

146. 
Historical  paragraph,  7-36. 
House,  163. 

Hyphen,  78,  89,  194,  footnote. 
Hypotheses,  119-122. 


I. 

I,  162. 

IbhJ.,  56. 

Illegible  letter,  an,  196. 

Image,  fundamental,  210. 

Immanent,  178. 

Imminent,  178. 

Improprieties,  158. 

Improvement  in  writing,  4-6. 

In,  182. 

In  the  course  of,  182. 

Indention,  7,  200;  caution 
against  too  frequent,  206- 
207. 

Induction,  110-125. 

Informed,  180. 

Initials,  must  be  given  iu  ad- 
dresses, 188. 

Intend,  167. 

Intei'lining,  14. 

Interrogation  point,  193. 

Interruption  by  comma,  91. 

Into,  182. 

Irrelevance,  105-109. 

Irritate,  1(55. 


INDEX  OF  EIIETOEICAL   SUBJECTS     227 


Italics,  how  represented  in 
manuscript,  IStJ,  footnote; 
foreign  words  printed  iu,  156, 
footnote. 


Janus  clause,  phrase,  etc.,  134- 
135, 


Lahyrinth,  97-98. 

Landscape,  picturesque,  82-83 ; 
imaginary,  83;  graceful,  85- 
87. 

Last,  178. 

Latest,  178. 

Lay,  1(38. 

Leave,  168. 

Lend,  168. 

Let,  168. 

Letter,  An  Illegihle,  theme- 
subject,  196. 

Letters,  personal,  197-198. 

Letter-writing  as  a  form  of 
composition,  185-199. 

Liable,  175. 

Lie,  168. 

Like,  178. 

Likely,  175. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  how  he 
learned  to  express  himself,  17. 

Link,  every,  in  chain  of  tliought 
should  be  expressed,  100-105. 

Loan,  168. 

Locate,  168. 

Logical,  96;  defined,  96-100. 

Logical  paragraph,  the,  96-157. 

Long  theme,  a  chain  of  para- 
graphs, 200-218. 


M. 


Mad,  179. 
Majority,  161. 


Malaprop,  Mrs.,  4. 

ilanual  Exercises,  What  I 
Understand  by  Success  In, 
theme-subject,  132. 

Manuscript,  preparation  of,  8. 

Margin,  7-8. 

May,  168-169. 

Mention,  165. 

Mistaking  what  happens  to 
follow  for  what  results,  123- 
125. 

Misunderstanding,  danger  of, 
2-4,  64. 

Modifiers,  61,  68;  how  to  place 
logically,  13.'>-135;  how  to 
dispose  of  sentences  mask- 
ing as,  1.53-1.57. 

Moral  truths,  whether  better 
stated  or  suggested,  113-115. 

Most,  179. 

Myself,  102. 

N. 

Narration,  206-208;  historical, 
7-36;  fictitious,  37-66. 

Naturalness  in  writing,  2. 

Necessaries,  162. 

Necessities,  162. 

Neither,  takes  singular  verb, 
149. 

Neutral  pronoun,  146. 

None,  number  of,  149. 

Notes,  to  a  stranger,  190; 
social,  194-195. 


O. 

Object,  indirect,  61 ;  clause,  62. 

Observance,  162. 

Observation,  162. 

Observations  should  be  numer- 
ous before  inference,  115- 
118. 

Odd,  177. 


228     INDEX  OF  BHETOniCAL   SUBJECTS 


One's  self,  162. 

Ouly,  position  of,  13i. 

On  to,  182. 

Oral,  179. 

Order,  in  historical  narrative, 

12-14. 
Otlier  than,  182. 
Outline,  sample  for  hrief,  208. 
Owing  to,  13i>,  footnote. 

P. 

Paragraph,  defined,  7-8;  the 
Historical,  7-;i<>;  the  Fic- 
titious, 37-66;  the  Descrip- 
tive, 67-*,).');  the  Logical,  96- 
157. 

Paragraphs,  chain  of,  200-218 ; 
division  of  narrative  subject 
into,  206-208  ;  division  of  de- 
scriptive subjects  into,  209- 
210 ;  to  criticise  those  of  two 
versions  of  Gettysburg  ad- 
dress, 211-213;  division  of 
expository  subject  into,  21.5- 
216. 

Parenthesis,  how  punctuated, 
79-82  ;  marks  of,  81 ;  intensi- 
fied by  dash,  191. 

Part,  163. 

Participle,  nature  of,  1.38;  il- 
logical reference  of,  138-139; 
not  to  be  confused  with 
verbal,  140-141;  value  of,  in 
reducing  sentences  to  modi- 
fiers, 155. 

Particular,  reasoning  from,  to 
general,  110-125. 

Party,  162. 

Patriot,  The  Definition  of, 
theme-subject,  214. 

Period,  its  work  cannot  be 
done  by  comma,  25;  nor  by 
dash,  192. 


Periods,  seldom  to  be  placed 
thirty  words  apart,  18. 

Person,  162. 

Persons,  description  of,  67-68. 

Petition,  A,  theme-subject,  189. 

Phrase  defined,  60-61;  adjec- 
tive, 61. 

Picturesque  landscape,  82-83. 

Plural,  possessive  of,  91 ;  of 
single  letters  and  words,  196, 
footnote. 

Plurality,  161. 

Popes,  Two,  theme-subject,  77. 

Portion,  16;:>. 

Possessive  with  apostrophe, 
90-91. 

"  Pijfit  hoc,  propter  hoc,"  123- 
125. 

Posted,  180. 

Practical,  180. 

Practicable,  180. 

Preceding,  178. 

Predominant,  163. 

Principal  statement,  19,  61 ;  see 
also  under  Sentence. 

Prominent,  16."5. 

Pronoun,  relative,  61;  illogical 
reference  of  personal,  136- 
137. 

Proposition,  19. 

Propose,  169. 

Proved, 169. 

Proven,  169. 

Punctuation,  child's  error  in, 
23;  appositive  and  paren- 
thetical expressions,  79-82  ; 
words  in  a  series,  8.3-85 ;  rela- 
tive clauses,  87-89;  quota- 
tions, 91-93;  enumerations, 
94-95;  the  dash,  190-192;  in- 
terrogation point,  193;  ex- 
clamation point,  198-199 ; 
vocative  expressions,  202. 

Purpose,  169. 


INDEX  OF  RHETORICAL   SUBJECTS     229 


Q. 

Quick  student,  115-118. 
Quit.  180. 
Quite,  180. 

Quotation,  punctuation  of,  91- 
93. 

R. 

Railwaj^  travel,  58-59, 

Raise,  169. 

Real,  181. 

Really,  181. 

Rear,  Kill. 

Reasoning,  chain  of,  96-157 ; 
methods  of,  10'.>-li;> ;  cautions 
to  observe  in,  115-126. 

Receipt,  163. 

Recipe,  163. 

Reckon,  167. 

Relation,  163. 

Relative  clauses,  how  punctu- 
ated, 87-89. 

Relative,  163. 

Remainder,  160. 

Remark,  162. 

Reproduction,  passages  for,  10- 
12,  11-15,  37,  50,  51,  i;;2,  135- 
1.36, 137, 142, 144, 19(),  214-215. 

Reputation,  160-161. 

Resemblances,  reasoning  from, 
119-122. 

Residence,  163. 

Result  and  cause,  12.3-125. 

Reversed  inductive  order,  112. 

Revision,  4-6;  directions  for, 
see  the  various  Exercises  by 
number. 

Ride,  166-167. 


Second,  167. 

Semicolon  before  so,  27  ;  before 


and,  44;  before  hut,  45-48; 
ending  or  beginning  a  com- 
pounding sentence,  69. 

Sensation,  verbs  of,  17(>-177. 

Sentence,  detiued,  18-19 ;  proper 
length  of,  15-21 ;  compound- 
ing, how  punctuated,  .38-44, 
45-48;  complex,  defined,  5i>- 
^(^ ;  simple  may  be  compelled 
to  do  work  of  compound,  151- 
153;  uninipi)rtant  reduced  to 
modifiers,  153-157. 

Sermons,  why  we  remember  so 
few,  207. 

Set,  169-170. 

Settle,  168. 

Sewage,  164. 

Sewerage,  164. 

Shall,  171-174. 

Signatures,  in  business  letters, 
lsr)-lS7  ;  in  notes,  194-195. 

Sit,  169-170. 

Site,  164. 

Situation,  164. 

Slow  student,  115-118. 

Society,  value  of  comi5osition 
in,  3-4. 

Some,  181. 

Some  place  else,  181. 

Somewhat,  180-181. 

Somewhere  else,  181. 

Spelling,  Rule  1,  .37  ;  Rule  2,  44 ; 
Rule  3,48;  Rule  4, 51;  Rule  5, 
59;  Rule  6,  72;  Rule  7,  78; 
Rule  8,  83 ;    Rule  9,  90. 

Stability  of  structure  in  sen- 
tence, 151-153. 

Stars,  see  Asterisks. 

Statement,  punctuation  of  com- 
plete, beginning  with  .so,  26; 
begining  with  synonyms  for 
cDid  or  and  so,  30. 

Stay,  170. 

Stop,  170. 


230     INDEX   OF  RHETOIilCAL   SUBJECTS 


Stream  of  thought,  how  not  to 
interrupt,  7i>-76,  '.)1. 

Structure,  how  to  avoid  an 
awkward  change  of,  151-153. 

Student,  quick  vs.  shjw,  115-118. 

Subject,  simple,  (50;  nioditied, 
60-(Jl ;  concord  of,  with  predi- 
cate, 148-149. 

Summary,  before  colon,  or 
comma  and   dash,   94-95. 

Suspense,  by  inductive  order, 
112;  produced  by  dash,  191. 

Synonyms,  for  and  and  and  so, 
27;  for  but,  31-33;  for  as, 
55-58 ;  for  idea  of  clause,  143. 

T. 

Tantalize,  165. 

Tarpeia,  11. 

Teall,    on    Compound    Words, 

78,  footnote. 
Terms,  importance  of  defining, 

12(). 
Their,    not    to    refer    to    one 

person,  145. 
Theseus,  97-98. 
They,  not  to  refer  to  a  species, 

14(). 
Think,  1H7. 
Thoreau's  House-building,  203- 

20(). 
Thought,  complete,  68-(;9. 
Thoughts,  irrelevant,  105-109. 
Thread  of  Theseus,  97-98. 
Title  for  a  paragraph  of  reason- 
ing, how  to  frame,  12()-130. 
Titles,  in  business  letters,  187- 

188. 
Topic,  chain  of  reasoning  from, 

9<)-157  j^assun ;    stated  first, 

112;  stated  last,  112. 
Transpire,  170. 
Truth,  in  historical  narrative, 


8-10 ;  difficulty  of  telling,  9- 

10. 

U. 
Unity    in    the   sentence.      See 

Exercises,  11,  12,  ItJ,  43,  48, 

59,  131. 
Unless,  182. 
Uri,  Bay  of,  82-83. 


Vague  thoughts,  their  value 
and  danger,  102. 

Value  of  composition,  1-6. 

Verb,  concord  of,  with  sub- 
ject, 148-149. 

Verbals,  124,  footuote. 

Viz.,  138,  footnote. 

Vocabularies,  14,  50,  54,  55,  58, 
.^)9,  (;7,  71,  72,  76-77,77-81,  82, 
8:!,  85-S(),  86,  89,  90,  130,  1.30- 
131,  131-132,  132,  135,  1.37, 
139,  142,  144,  147,  150,  160, 
196,  202-203;  special,  37,  44, 
48,  51. 

Vocative  expressions,  how 
punctuated,  202. 

Voice,  letting  fall,  16,  23. 

W. 

Walking  Alone,  theme-sub- 
ject, .54-55. 

Want,  170. 

Was,  170. 

Well-knit  sentences,  153-157. 

Were,  170. 

Which,  how  to  avoid  making, 
refer  to  a  verb,  142-143. 

Will,  171-174. 

Wish,  170. 

Without,  182. 

Words,  correctness  in  the  use 
of,  158-184. 


SUBJECT    INDEX    OF    THE    ILLUS- 
TRATIVE   MATERIAL 


Accident,  Alpine,  42. 

Advancement  in  life,  184. 

Agassiz,  51. 

Alcohol,  effects  of,  22. 

Art  association,  127. 

Artemus  Ward,  105. 

Athletic  power,  26,  ()3,  128,  129. 

Athletics,  G4-<35,  70-71. 

B. 

Bacon  and  Shakespeare,  143. 

Bashfuluess,  lit8. 

Bear,  the  death  of  a,  25. 

Bell,  39. 

Bell-tower,  a,  84. 

Bismarck,  8.S-89. 

Books,  62,  184. 

Bradley  as  a  dog-trainer,  32. 

Bridge,  photograph  of,  41 ;   of 

ice",  42. 
Bright,  John,  30. 
Brown,  Dr.  John,  52. 
Bryant,  William  Cnllen,  26. 
Bryant's  regularity  of  life,  108- 

109. 
Burns,  46,  74. 
Burrow,  the  house  hut  a  porch 

at  the  entrance  of,  205. 
Business  man's  maxims,   198- 

199. 


Camp-life,  50. 

Cannon-hall,  stealing  a,  81. 

Carlyle,  40,  154. 

Cats",  black,  123. 

Channing,  W.  E.,  57. 

Charity,  62. 

Chinese  professor  of  music  on 
European  music,  57. 

Circle,  Giotto's,  135-136. 

Circumstances,  influence  of,  99- 
100. 

Clark  University,  22. 

Claudius,  Dr.,  40,  128. 

Cold  objects,  the  feeling  of,  de- 
ceptive, 147. 

Colors  of  races,  127-128. 

Conceit  pricked,  46. 

Courage,  British  schoolboy's, 
152-153;  Virchow's,  88. 

"Coventry,  put  into,"  152-153. 

Cuckoo,  46. 

D. 

Darwin,  58,  73-74,  118. 
Day-laborers,  why  tJiey  decay 

early,  70. 
Dickens,  57. 
Discovery  and  invention,  107- 

108. 
Dishonesty,  45. 
Dog's  gratitude,  52. 


231 


232      INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL 


Dreams,  34-35. 
Duke,  the  dog,  32-33. 
Dull  boy,  rights  of,  113. 
Dyspepsia,  Carlyle's,  40. 

E. 

Earning  one's  bread,  46. 
Earthworms,    56-57,     111-112, 

124. 
Ebers,  Georg,  112. 
Economy,  80. 
Edison,  a  visit  to,  29;  rank  of, 

39. 
Education,    184;    by    life,   57; 

girl's,  183. 
Efficiency,  mental,  106. 
Electric  car,  Edison's  first,  30. 
Electricity,  120. 
Emerson's    gracious    manner, 

4.3-44. 
Ericsson,  John,  108. 
Everett,   Edward,    at    Gettys- 
burg, 21,3-214. 
Experiments,  Darwin's,  73>-74. 
Eye,  accuracy  of  Thoreau's,  72 ; 

inaccuracy  of  the  ordinary, 

53. 


Faraday's  humility,  142. 
Fawcett,  Miss,  70-71. 
Fishing,  103. 
Foolhardiness,  113. 
Footl)all,  23. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  .39,  109. 
Funston,  General,  43. 


Gal  van,  .39. 

Garrick,  the  actor,  24. 
German    boys,    superior    phy- 
sique of,  71. 


Gettysburg   speech,   Lincoln's, 

66,211-213. 
Girl's  education,  183. 
Glaciers,     how    formed,     150- 

151. 
Gladstone,  William  E.,  1.30. 
Golf,  65. 
Goodyear,    the   inventor,  107- 

108! 
Grant,  U.  S.,  38,  65,  m,  99-100; 

Frederick,  38. 
Grass    upon    the    mountains, 

8(;. 
Great  men,  63. 

H. 

Habit,  79. 

Hammers,  Maydole's,  79. 

Handel,  140. 

Hayes,  R.  B.,  6.3. 

Heroism,  14-15,  42,  128. 

Honesty,  103-104;    of  savages, 

198. 
Horseshoes,  123. 
House-building,         Thoreau's, 

20;-.-206. 
Humility,  Faraday's,  142. 


Imperial,  Prince,  9-10. 
Indian,    punctuality    of,    140; 

shrewdness  of,  103-104. 
Indians,  Lincoln  as  a  fighter  of, 

46. 
Invention  and  discovery,  107- 

108. 

K. 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  99. 
Kitchener,  General  Lord,  153- 
154. 


INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL      233 


L. 

Lake,  a  Swiss,  82. 
Lark,  4(3. 

Lawyer,  impertinence  of  a,  128. 
Lee,  R.  E.,  38;  Fitzliugh,  38. 
Library,  access  to,  184:. 
Lightning,  63,  OU,  120. 
Lincoln,  39,46,  63. 
Livingstone,  Dr.,  198;    finding 

of,  202. 
Luck,  38. 

M. 
Magnet,  Faraday  and  the,  142. 
Manual  skill,  Thoreau's,  72. 
Mast,  the  ascent  of  a,  128-1.30. 
Mastery  of  his  craft,  Giotto's, 

135-136. 
Maxims  of  a  business  man,  198- 

199. 
Maydole,  David,  79. 
Mediaeval  castle,  a,  89. 
Michel  Angelo.  140,  141. 
Mind,  scatter-brained,  106. 
Modesty,  63,  87. 
Money,  183,  183-184. 
Monitor,  108. 
Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  93. 

N. 

Napiers,  the  fighting,  156. 
Nasse,  Professor,  42. 
Neatness,  46,  87. 
Newbern,  athlete,  64. 
Niagara,  bathing  above,  113. 


Parents  and  children,  92,  1.32- 

1.33. 
Patriot  defined,  214. 
Perception,  lack  of,  114. 


Persistence,  73-74, 112-113,  US- 
UI, 140. 

Phonograph,  the  first,  29. 

Photograph  of  bridge,  41. 

Pluck,  English,  152-153,  156. 

Pocahontas,  117,  footnote. 

Poets,  the  New  England,  94. 

Polar  seas.  Dr.  Nausen's  belief 
about,  137-138. 

Pope  Leo's  vigorous  character, 
77. 

Poverty,  Goodyear's  struggle 
with,  107. 

Pratt,  Charles,  his  rules  for 
success,  85. 

Precocity,  75,  118-119,  193. 

Princess,  an  accurate,  41. 

Punctuality,  Wellington's,  39- 
40;  Indian's,  140. 

Purity  of  Grant,  99. 

R. 

Railway  travel,  charm  of,  58. 
Reading,  62,  1.54,  183,  184,  191. 
Regularity  in  habits,  108. 
Respect  better  than  love,  62. 
Restlessness,  140. 
Revenge,  the,  91-92. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  60-61. 
Rubber,  vulcanized,  107. 


Sarcasm,  154. 

Scatter-brained  workers,  106. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  119. 

Sea-power,  108. 

"  Self-Reliance,"  47,  198. 

Self-seeking,  114. 

Sensation,  an  ennobling  differ- 
ence between  higher  and 
lower  animals,  183. 

Sham,  191. 


234      INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIAL 


Skill,  Thoreau's  manual,  72. 
Sleep,  (Jo. 

Smith,  Captain  John,  117,  foot- 
note. 
Sweat-shops,  80. 


Teachei',  of  masculine  chai'ac- 

ter,  1.j4. 
Tenacitj',  99. 

Tennyson  as  an  athlete,  42. 
Thinking  vs.  doing,  193. 
Thoreau,  71. 

Tlioroughness,  (i.'J,  79,  9.'5. 
Thriiig,  Edward,  ll^i. 
Tinworth,  George,  52. 
"  Tom  Brown,"  (m. 
Treacliery  of  Tarj^eia,  11. 
Tsar,  114. 

U. 

Unpretentiousness,  5.5. 


Vacations, 


V. 

effect 


on    work, 


Virchow,  Professor,  88-89. 
Von    Moltke's    unpretentious- 
ness, 55. 

W. 

Walking  alone,  54. 

Wealth,  74,  81,  87. 

Wehster's  appearance,  63. 

Wellington,  39-40,  G4,  104, 
153.  " 

West,  Benj.,  93. 

Woman's  education,  183. 

Women,  American,  as  walkers, 
70. 

Women  as  students,  70-71,  137. 

Wordsworth,  4t). 

Work,  love  for,  ()3. 

Wounds,  superstitious  treat- 
ment of,  123. 


INDEX   OF   AUTHORS   QUOTED 


Adler  and  Ramsay,  38. 
Aldrich,  T.  B.,  VMi. 

B. 

Banks,  Louis  Albert,  1C3. 
Barnum,  Phineas  T.,  45. 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  81. 
Blaikie,  W.  G.,  G:?,  (IH-TI,  108. 
Brown,  Dr.  John,  ."»'2. 
Burroughs,  John,  119. 

C. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  C,3,   118-119, 

19;'5. 
Chohuondeley,  Thos.,  197. 
Crawford,  Francis  Marion.  12, 

40,  77,  89-<)0,  128-130. 
Corinthians,  62. 

D. 

Dana,  Charles  A.,  21.3-214. 
Darwin,    Charles,    50-57,    112, 
124,  128. 

E. 

Edison.  Thomas  Alva,  10(V-108. 
Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  39,  47, 
71-72,  198. 


Faraday,  Michael,  142. 
Fiske,  John,  151-1,52. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  80. 
Fuller,  Thos.,  91. 

G. 

Garrison,  Wendell  Phillips,  128, 

13;',. 
George,  Henry,  121. 
(4ibbon,  Edward,  47. 
Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  40, 

74. 
Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von, 

193. 
Gosse,  Edmund,  53, 
Gulliver,  Rev.  J.  P.,  18. 

H. 

Hart,  J.  M.,  188. 

Hawthorne,      Nathaniel,     47, 

1,54, 
Helps,  Sir  Arthur,  114, 
Hewett,  Vf.  T,   S.,  40,  04,  87, 

191. 
Hibben,  Professor,  123. 
Hill,  A.  S.,  107,  footnote. 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  75. 
Howells,  William  Deau,  84. 
Hubert,  J.  P.,  Jr.,  93. 
Hyslop,  J.  H.,  110,  119. 


235 


236 


INDEX    OF    AUTHORS    QUOTED 


James,    William,   ()5,    105-lOG, 

185. 
Judson,  Harry  Pratt,  l.'14-215. 

K. 

Kelly,  Florence,  8i). 
Kiuglake,  Charles,  'J. 


Lincoln,  Abraham,  19,  4(). 
Longfellow,       Henry      Wads- 
worth,  135-13(i. 
Lyman,  Henry  M.,  M.D.,  35. 

M. 

Mabie,   Hamilton  W.,  40,  47- 

48,  (13. 
Marden,  O.   S.,  .34,  40,  79,  99, 

104-10,-1,  114. 
Maclaren,  Ian,  154. 
McGaffey,  Ernest,  81. 
Miles,  A.  H.,  89. 
Minto,  William,  9,  53. 
Morse,  S.  F.  B.,  93. 

N. 
Nansen,  F.,  M.D.,  137-138. 


Pratt,  Charles,  85. 


R. 

Reid,  the  Scotch  philosopher, 

121-122. 
Raskin,  John,  82-83,   86,    182- 

184,  r,)8. 

S. 

Saint-Pierre,  Bernardin  de,  125. 

Shaler,  N.  S.,  144. 

Socrates,  92. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.,  200-202. 

Stanton,  Edwin  M.,  213-214. 

Stevenson,    Robert   Louis,    54, 

58. 
Stillman,  W.J. ,51. 

T. 

Tait,  Professor,  147. 

Taylor,  Father,  57. 

Thorean,  Henry  D.,  45-46,  63, 

87,  154,  191,  20.3-206. 
Tyler,  ISIoses  Coit,  153. 
Tyndall,  John,  140. 

W. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  25. 
West,  Benjamin,  93. 
Wilkins,  Mary  E.,  28. 

Y. 

Youth''s  Companion,  The,  22, 
39,  40,  42,  52,  64,  99,  113,  127, 
128,  144. 


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